Riduan Isamuddin, better known as Hambali, is an internationally designated terrorist, former al-Qaeda operative, and leader of Jemaah Islamiyah (JI). Hambali, a citizen of Indonesia, is one of 17 high-value detainees at United States Naval Base Guantánamo Bay in Cuba.“The Guantánamo Docket: Hambali (Riduan Isamuddin),” New York Times, accessed February 1, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10019-hambali-riduan-isamuddin-/documents/5. Hambali is suspected of playing a key role in a number of terrorist attacks in Indonesia, including JI’s first major terrorist operation in December 2000, which targeted 28 churches in Jakarta, Sumatra, and Java. He was also linked to the 9/11 attacks in the United States, according to the U.N. Security Council.“Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin,” United Nations Security Council, March 28, 2011, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/nurjaman-riduan-isamuddin; “Jemaah Islamiyah,” United Nations Security Council, April 17, 2018,  https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/jemaah-islamiyah. Hambali was also believed to be responsible for laundering money used to finance al-Qaeda terrorist plots, including the 1993 World Trade Center bombing and the failed 1995 Bojinka plot.Aurel Croissant and Daniel Barlow, “Government Responses in Southeast Asia,” Terrorism Financing and State Responses: A Comparative Perspective (Stanford: Stanford UP), p. 212, http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=10507. In January 2017, the U.S. Defense Department charged Hambali and two associates—Malaysian nationals Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep, a.k.a. Lillie, and Mohd Farik Bin Amin, a.k.a. Zubair—with planning and facilitating the October 2002 Bali attack and the August 2003 JW Marriott Hotel attack in Jakarta.Carol Rosenberg, “U.S. charges Hambali at Guantánamo with Bali, Jakarta terrorist bombings,” Miami Herald, June 23, 2017, https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/guantanamo/article157887649.html.

Hambali was born and educated in Indonesia. In 1985, he moved to Malaysia to pursue work and married a local woman. He was exposed to Islamist extremist teachings of various clerics and came under the mentorship of exiled Indonesian cleric Abdullah Sungkar, who would go on to co-found JI. Sungkar facilitated Hambali’s travel to Afghanistan in 1986, in order to train at Rasul Sayyaf’s Sada camp and fight against the Soviets.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch5.pdf; “The Guantánamo Docket: Hambali (Riduan Isamuddin): JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times, October 30, 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10019-hambali-riduan-isamuddin-/documents/11. According to the U.N. Security Council, Hambali fought alongside and made contact with several al-Qaeda leaders, including Osama bin Laden and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (KSM).“Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin,” United Nations Security Council, March 28, 2011, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/nurjaman-riduan-isamuddin. Hambali returned to Malaysia in 1988, reuniting with Sungkar and strengthening his association with other extremists such as Islamist cleric and JI co-founder Abu Bakar Bashir. By his own account, Hambali traveled throughout Southeast Asia during this time, promoting militant extremism.“Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin,” United Nations Security Council, March 28, 2011, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/nurjaman-riduan-isamuddin; “The Guantánamo Docket: Hambali (Riduan Isamuddin): JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times, October 30, 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10019-hambali-riduan-isamuddin-/documents/11.

In January 1993, while still exiled in Malaysia, Sungkar and Bashir formally established JI with the goal of creating an Islamic state under sharia across much of Southeast Asia. JI was heavily influenced by bin Laden and al-Qaeda. Founding members of both JI and al-Qaeda had similarly trained or fought in Pakistan and Afghanistan during the late 1980s and early 1990s.“Jemaah Islamiyah,” United Nations Security Council, April 17, 2018,  https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/jemaah-islamiyah. During the 1990s, Hambali traveled across Southeast Asia to develop relationships between JI and other Islamist groups, including in the Philippines.“The Guantánamo Docket: Hambali (Riduan Isamuddin): JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times, accessed February 1, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10019-hambali-riduan-isamuddin-/documents/11. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, Hambali assumed responsibility for the Singapore-Malaysia region of the newly-formed terrorist organization JI in 1998.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch5.pdf. As detailed in the ideological and tactical manual General Guidelines of the Struggle of Al Jemā‘ah Al Islāmiyah (PUPJI), JI was separated into four mantiqi, or areas of operation. Hambali supervised the Singapore-Malaysia mantiqi until his arrest in 2003. Under his tutelage, the mantiqi adopted a wider anti-Western agenda similar to al-Qaeda. From 2000 to 2001, Hambali chaired a five-member body within JI, known as the Regional Advisory Council.Bruce Vaughn, Emma Chanlett-Avery et al, “Terrorism in Southeast Asia,” Congressional Research Service, October 16, 2009, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/RL34194.pdf.

In June 1994, Hambali and his business partner Wali Khan Amin Shah established the Konsojaya trading company in Malaysia, which had a central role in terrorist activities. On December 1, a bomb exploded on board a Philippine Airlines jet traveling to Tokyo, killing a Japanese businessman and forcing the plane to land in Okinawa. Trial testimony revealed that Shah facilitated funding for the attack through Konsojaya. U.S. court records also later revealed that the December 1994 bombing was a preliminary step for a larger terrorist attack on multiple American airliners.Mark Fineman and Richard C. Paddock, “Indonesia Cleric Tied to ’95 Anti-U.S. Plot,” Los Angeles Times, February 7, 2020, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-feb-07-mn-26735-story.html; Nancy Reckler, “MAN ARRESTED IN MALAYSIA CHARGED IN N.Y. WITH PLOT TO BOMB U.S. AIRLINERS,” Washington Post, December 14, 1995, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/12/14/man-arrested-in-malaysia-charged-in-ny-with-plot-to-bomb-us-airliners/99131df9-3061-45c6-92fe-a518876a2acb/.

Malaysian and Philippine officials believe that Hambali’s Konsojaya trading company served as a financial conduit for the Bojinka plot, which was masterminded by Ramzi Yousef, the perpetrator of the 1993 World Trade Center bombing, and KSM. The Bojinka plot involved bombing 12 passenger planes that were departing cities throughout Asia and bound for the west coast of the United States. The plan ultimately failed in January 1995, when Philippine police responded to an accidental fire at Yousef’s apartment in Manila. The attacks would have killed as many as 4,000 Americans in a 48-hour period, according to U.S. prosecutors. The planners used Konsojaya’s palm oil exporting business as a cover to move funds into the Philippines, where Yousef was preparing for attacks.Mark Fineman and Richard C. Paddock, “Indonesia Cleric Tied to ’95 Anti-U.S. Plot,” Los Angeles Times, February 7, 2020, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-feb-07-mn-26735-story.html; Leslie Lopez and Jay Solomon, “Indonesian Cleric Becomes Focus of Terror Manhunt,” Wall Street Journal, February 1, 2002, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB1012510692916145560. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, it is with this plot that KSM conceived of using aircraft as weapons.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch5.pdf.

In the late 1990s, Hambali met with KSM to arrange for JI members to attend al-Qaeda’s training camps in Afghanistan, according to the U.N. Security Council.“Jemaah Islamiyah,” United Nations Security Council, April 17, 2018,  https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/jemaah-islamiyah. Hambali continued to work closely with KSM as well as with bin Laden’s chief of operations, Mohammed Atef. According to the 9/11 Commission Report, Hambali became the key coordinator of JI’s relationship with al-Qaeda and facilitated the global terror network’s financial and logistical support of JI’s terrorist activities in Indonesia, which expanded to include plots against American targets.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch5.pdf. In addition to coordinating JI and al-Qaeda-linked terrorist activities in Southeast Asia, the U.S. Department of Defense’s Combatant Status Review Tribunal claimed Hambali was the leader of the Malaysia Mujahedin Movement, which sought to overthrow the Malaysian government.“The Guantánamo Docket: Hambali (Riduan Isamuddin): Combatant Status Review Tribunals Summaries,” New York Times, March 28, 2007 https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10019-hambali-riduan-isamuddin-/documents/5. Hambali also stands accused of establishing a foreign student organization in Pakistan called al Ghuraba, which served as a front for a JI recruitment cell, according to the government of Singapore.Ellen Nakashima, “11 Men With Suspected Ties to Al Qaeda Arrested in Southeast Asia,” Washington Post, December 19, 2003, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/12/19/11-men-with-suspected-ties-to-al-qaeda-arrested-in-southeast-asia/1ef50520-f90e-4e97-975b-f05d973d2144/.

The 9/11 Commission alleged that between December 1999 and January 2000, at KSM’s direction, Hambali harbored and aided several al-Qaeda members who would go on to conduct attacks. These individuals included Tawfiq bin Attash, who helped bomb the USS Cole in October 2000, as well as future 9/11 hijackers Nawaf al Hazmi and Khalid al Mihdhar. In the late 2000s, Hambali also allegedly provided lodging and other assistance—including flight school information and help in acquiring ammonium nitrate—to Zacarias Moussaoui, convicted al-Qaeda member and would-be 20th hijacker in 9/11.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch5.pdf.

Hambali was also allegedly involved in several JI-linked terrorist incidents in Southeast Asia in 2000. On August 1, JI militants bombed the residence of the Philippine ambassador to Indonesia, leaving two people dead and the ambassador seriously injured. Another JI member told Philippine investigators that Hambali was involved.“Jemaah Islamiyah,” United Nations Security Council, April 17, 2018,  https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/jemaah-islamiyah;  “Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin,” United Nations Security Council, March 28, 2011, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/nurjaman-riduan-isamuddin. On December 24, JI launched its first major terrorist operation, simultaneously bombing 28 churches in the Indonesian cities of Jakarta, Sumatra, and Java, killing 19 people and wounding more than 120 others. Indonesian police discovered documents implicating Hambali in the attack.David Gordon and Samuel Lindo, “Jemaah Islamiyah,” Center for Strategic & International Studies, November 2011, http://csis.org/files/publication/111101_Gordon_JemaahIslamiyah_WEB.pdf; “Statement by the Treasury Department Regarding Today’s Designation of Two Leaders of Jemaah Islamiyah,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, January 24, 2003, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/kd3796.aspx. The U.N. Security Council alleged that Hambali was also involved in planning a series of bombings in Manila, Philippines, which killed at least 22 people and injured more than 100 on December 30.“Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin,” United Nations Security Council, March 28, 2011, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/nurjaman-riduan-isamuddin. And in December 2001, Singaporean authorities discovered a JI plot to attack Western diplomatic and commercial targets in the city-state. The U.S. Treasury Department later accused Hambali of directing the foiled plot.Chun Han Wong, “Singapore Detains Suspected Militants,” Wall Street Journal, October 12, 2012, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444799904578052054207677748; “Statement by the Treasury Department Regarding Today’s Designation of Two Leaders of Jemaah Islamiyah,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, January 24, 2003, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/kd3796.aspx.

Bin Lep and Bin Amin claimed that after the October 2001 bombing of al-Farouq camp in Afghanistan, Hambali recruited them and two other jihadists, known as Afifi and Masran, to take part in a martyrdom operation.“The Guantánamo Docket: Zubair (Mohd Farik Bin Amin): JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times, September 23, 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10021-zubair-mohd-farik-bin-amin-/documents/11; “The Guantánamo Docket: Lillie (Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep): JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times, October 13, 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10022-lillie-mohammed-nazir-bin-lep-/documents/11. According to U.S. charges, Hambali had chosen the four, Malaysian nationals who pledged allegiance to Osama bin Laden, to travel to the United States and launch a post-9/11 suicide bombing attack, likely in California.Carol Rosenberg, “U.S. charges Hambali at Guantánamo with Bali, Jakarta terrorist bombings,” Miami Herald, June 23, 2017, https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/guantanamo/article157887649.html; Carol Rosenberg, “Judge Postpones Guantánamo Court Appearances, Citing Pandemic,” New York Times, February 2, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/02/us/politics/guantanamo-coronavirus-hambali.html. The so-called “West Coast Airliner Plot” was devised by KSM as a “second wave” to follow the 9/11 attacks. Hambali and the other planners reportedly believed that the Malaysian jihadists would have an easier time entering the United States than Arabs in the wake of 9/11. However, the plot ultimately failed.Patrick Winn, “Osama bin Laden's Asian disciples,” The World, May 2, 2011, https://www.pri.org/stories/2011-05-02/osama-bin-ladens-asian-disciples.

In January 2002, Hambali reportedly convened a meeting of JI operatives in southern Thailand to discuss a new strategy of attacking “softer” targets, such as bars and nightclubs. The U.S. Defense Department alleges that Hambali facilitated the transfer of money to fund these types of attacks, was in contact with JI operatives who were suspected of fabricating explosives, and had knowledge of an imminent bombing.“Notification of Swearing of Charges in United States v. Encep Nurjaman,” U.S. Department of Defense, April 5, 2019, https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/751-2019HambaliCharges/e58e1aaf3f8134ef2fa8/optimized/full.pdf. On October 12, 2002, in an attack attributed to JI, two bombs exploded at Paddy’s Irish Bar and the Sari Club on the Indonesian tourist island of Bali, killing 202 people and injuring 209 others.Bruce Vaughn, Emma Chanlett-Avery et al, “Terrorism in Southeast Asia,” Congressional Research Service, October 16, 2009, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/terror/RL34194.pdf; “The 12 October 2002 Bali bombing plot,” BBC News, October 11, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-19881138. Between December 2002 and January 2003, Hambali allegedly facilitated the receipt of approximately $99,900 in al-Qaeda funds for use in a JI operation and ordered Bin Lep and Bin Amin to store the money at their apartment in Bangkok. In the spring of 2003, Hambali directed Bin Lep and Bin Amin to deliver the money to Indonesia and the Philippines, according to the U.S. charge sheet.“Notification of Swearing of Charges in United States v. Encep Nurjaman,” U.S. Department of Defense, April 5, 2019, https://int.nyt.com/data/documenthelper/751-2019HambaliCharges/e58e1aaf3f8134ef2fa8/optimized/full.pdf. On August 5, 2003, JI operatives bombed the JW Marriott Hotel in Jakarta, killing 12 people and wounding 150 others. According to U.S. government documents, the perpetrators targeted the hotel believing there would be a large American presence.“Bali bombing: Guantánamo inmate Hambali charged over 2002 attack,” Guardian, June 23, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/jun/24/bali-bombing-guantanamo-inmate-hambali-charged-over-2002-attack. The United States alleges that Hambali “planned, aided and abetted in a course of conduct that resulted” in the 2002 Bali bombings, as well as the August 2003 JW Marriott Hotel bombing.“DOD Announces Charges Referred Against Guantanamo Detainees Encep Nurjaman, Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep, and Mohammed Farik Bin Amin,” U.S. Department of Defense, January 21, 2021, https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Advisories/Advisory/Article/2479146/dod-announces-charges-referred-against-guantanamo-detainees-encep-nurjaman-moha/.

Hambali was wanted by authorities in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia for suspected involvement in foiled plots and terrorist attacks.“Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin,” United Nations Security Council, March 28, 2011, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/nurjaman-riduan-isamuddin. On August 14, 2003, a joint U.S.-Thai operation captured Hambali in Thailand along with two accomplices—Malaysian nationals Bin Lep and Bin Amin. The three suspects were transferred to Guantánamo in September 2006 after three years in C.I.A. custody.“The Guantánamo Docket: Hambali (Riduan Isamuddin): JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times, October 30, 2008, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10019-hambali-riduan-isamuddin-/documents/11; Carol Rosenberg, “Judge Postpones Guantánamo Court Appearances, Citing Pandemic,” New York Times, February 2, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/02/us/politics/guantanamo-coronavirus-hambali.html.

In June 2017, a U.S. war court prosecutor officially charged Hambali with directing the 2002 Bali bombings and the 2003 attack on the JW Marriott Hotel in Jakarta. Hambali’s charges included “terrorism, murder in violation of the law of war, attempted murder, intentionally causing serious bodily injury, attack civilians and civilian objects and destruction of property, in violation of the law of war.” The charges also alleged that Hambali directed Bin Lep, Bin Amin, and two other Malaysian nationals to meet with Osama bin Laden in Kabul, Afghanistan, after the 9/11 attacks. Hambali had also allegedly selected four Malaysians to carry out a post-9/11 suicide bombing somewhere in the United States, possibly California.Carol Rosenberg, “U.S. charges Hambali at Guantánamo with Bali, Jakarta terrorist bombings,” Miami Herald, June 23, 2017, https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/guantanamo/article157887649.html.

The case of United States v. Encep Nurjaman (Hambali), Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep, and Mohammed Farik Bin Amin was finally approved for trial on January 21, 2021, when the U.S. Defense Department announced that the Convening Authority, Office of Military Commissions, referred charges to a military commission.“DOD Announces Charges Referred Against Guantanamo Detainees Encep Nurjaman, Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep, and Mohammed Farik Bin Amin,” U.S. Department of Defense, January 21, 2021, https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Advisories/Advisory/Article/2479146/dod-announces-charges-referred-against-guantanamo-detainees-encep-nurjaman-moha/. It was the first new case at Guantánamo Bay since 2014. Prosecutors are not permitted to seek the death penalty and it is possible for the suspects to negotiate toward a guilty plea and serve their sentences elsewhere.Carol Rosenberg, “Pentagon Official Approves Guantánamo Trial of 3 Men for Indonesia Bombings,” New York Times, January 21, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/21/us/politics/guantanamo-trial-indonesia-bombings.html.

On February 1, 2021, a military judge postponed the arraignment of Hambali and two of his accused accomplishes at Guantánamo. The three were scheduled to make their first court appearance after 17 years in detention on February 22, 2021. However, the judge said the risk to the health and safety of trial participants due to the COVID-19 pandemic was too high to proceed.“Nurjaman Riduan Isamuddin,” United Nations Security Council, March 28, 2011, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/nurjaman-riduan-isamuddin; Carol Rosenberg, “Judge Postpones Guantánamo Court Appearances, Citing Pandemic,” New York Times, February 2, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/02/us/politics/guantanamo-coronavirus-hambali.html. The three men are scheduled to be arraigned on August 30, 2021.“Military Commissions Media Invitation Announced for United States v. Encep Nurjaman; Mohammed Nazir Bin Lep; Mohammed Farik Bin Amin, Arraignment,” U.S. Department of Defense, June 28, 2021, https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Advisories/Advisory/Article/2673035/military-commissions-media-invitation-announced-for-united-states-v-encep-nurja/source/GovDelivery/; “Amended Arraignment Order,” U.S. Department of Defense Office of Military Commissions, April 16, 2021, https://www.mc.mil/Portals/0/pdfs/Nurjaman/Nurjaman%20(AE0002.008(TJ)(CorrectedCopy)).pdf.

Abu Hassan al-Gharibawi was the commander, or wali, of ISIS forces in southern Iraq.Sami Moubayed, “Who Will Replace the Slain Leaders of the Islamic State?,” European Eye on Radicalization, February 15, 2021, https://eeradicalization.com/who-will-replace-the-slain-leaders-of-the-islamic-state/. Gharibawi reportedly supervised the deadly twin suicide bombings in Tayaran Square in Baghdad on January 21, 2021.Islamic State officials behind Baghdad bombing killed, prime minister says,” Al Monitor, February 4, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/02/iraq-isis-baghdad-attack-killed.html. Gharibawi, along with another ISIS official, was killed in a U.S.-led international coalition airstrike in Abu Ghraib on February 2, 2021.“Islamic State officials behind Baghdad bombing killed, prime minister says,” Al Monitor, February 4, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/02/iraq-isis-baghdad-attack-killed.html.

Not much is known about Gharibawi—also known as Jabbar Ali Fayyad—other than his role as ISIS’s commander of southern Iraq. Gharibawi reportedly supervised the January 21, 2021 twin suicide bombings at a second-had clothes market in Tayaran Square, Baghdad.“Islamic State officials behind Baghdad bombing killed, prime minister says,” Al Monitor, February 4, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/02/iraq-isis-baghdad-attack-killed.html; “Iraq bombing: IS says it was behind deadly suicide attacks in Baghdad,” BBC News, January 22, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-55760822. The attack, which targeted Shiite Muslims, killed 32 people and wounded more than 100.“Islamic State officials behind Baghdad bombing killed, prime minister says,” Al Monitor, February 4, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/02/iraq-isis-baghdad-attack-killed.html. ISIS quickly claimed responsibility for the attack via a statement released by its Amaq News Agency.“Iraq bombing: IS says it was behind deadly suicide attacks in Baghdad,” BBC News, January 22, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-55760822. Following the double suicide attack, which was the biggest suicide attack in Baghdad in over four years, the Iraqi Counter-Terrorism Service (CTS) under the direction of the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces launched Operation Revenge of the Martyrs. The operation, which targets ISIS fighters and remaining extremist strongholds, led to the arrest of several terrorists in Baghdad.“Iraqi Counter-Terrorism Service launch the "Revenge of the Martyrs" operation,” Shafaq News, January 22, 2021, https://shafaq.com/en/Iraq-News/Iraqi-Counter-Terrorism-Service-launch-the-Revenge-of-the-Martyrs-operation.

Gharibawi, along with fellow ISIS operative Ghanem Sabah Jawad—who was primarily responsible for transporting suicide bombers—were killed by a U.S.-led international coalition airstrike in Abu Ghraib, 18 miles west of Baghdad, on February 2, 2021. According to Yehia Rasoul, the spokesperson for Iraq’s commander-in-chief, the airstrike was conducted with the help of intelligence provided by Iraq’s interior ministry.Shelly Kittleson, “Prominent Islamic State leaders killed in Iraq,” Al Monitor, March 1, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2021/03/iraq-security-isis-tarmiya.html.

Rinaldo Nazzaro is the founder of the white supremacist group The Base. The FBI describes the group as a “racially motivated violent extremist group” that “seeks to accelerate the downfall of the United States government, incite a race war, and establish a white ethno-state.”Daniel De Simone, Andrei Soshnikov, and Ali Winston, “Neo-Nazi Rinaldo Nazzaro running US militant group The Base from Russia,” BBC News, January 24, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-51236915. After a series of high-profile arrests of Base members in 2020, Nazzaro began building a new accelerationist organization later that year.Ben Makuch, “Russia-Based Neo-Nazi Terror Leader Offers Training To American Far Right,” Vice News, January 19, 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/3anj8w/russia-based-neo-nazi-terror-leader-offers-training-to-american-far-right. Nazzaro effectively disbanded the group in March 2021 and announced he was resigning from all operational roles in favor of providing advice and commentary.Rinaldo Nazzaro, BitChute account, accessed March 16, 2021. He again took a more active role in promoting The Base until February 2022, when he announced he was immediately “relinquishing all administrative responsibilities and control over The Base.”Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram channel, February 3, 2022.

Originally from New Jersey, Nazzaro ran a security company in the United States that claimed expertise in intelligence, counterterrorism, counterinsurgency, and psychological operations.Daniel De Simone, Andrei Soshnikov, and Ali Winston, “Neo-Nazi Rinaldo Nazzaro running US militant group The Base from Russia,” BBC News, January 24, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-51236915; Ben Makuch and Mack Lamoureux, “Neo-Nazi Terror Leader Said to Have Worked With U.S. Special Forces,” Vice News, September 24, 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/k7qdzv/neo-nazi-terror-leader-said-to-have-worked-with-us-special-forces. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) also confirmed that Nazzaro worked with DHS between 2004 and 2006.Ben Makuch, “Department of Homeland Security Confirms Neo-Nazi Leader Used to Work For It,” Vice News, February 17, 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/epd7wa/department-of-homeland-security-confirms-neo-nazi-leader-used-to-work-for-it. In 2014, Nazzaro reportedly worked with U.S. forces in the Middle East on counterterrorism measures. According to media reports, Nazzaro had top-secret clearance and was among a group that briefed special forces officers in the Middle East on military targeting and counterterrorism efforts.Daniel De Simone, Andrei Soshnikov, and Ali Winston, “Neo-Nazi Rinaldo Nazzaro running US militant group The Base from Russia,” BBC News, January 24, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-51236915; Ben Makuch and Mack Lamoureux, “Neo-Nazi Terror Leader Said to Have Worked With U.S. Special Forces,” Vice News, September 24, 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/k7qdzv/neo-nazi-terror-leader-said-to-have-worked-with-us-special-forces. Nazzaro reportedly claimed to have completed multiple tours of duty in Afghanistan in Iraq, but he has since denied ever putting on a uniform.Ben Makuch and Mack Lamoureux, “Neo-Nazi Terror Leader Said to Have Worked With U.S. Special Forces,” Vice News, September 24, 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/k7qdzv/neo-nazi-terror-leader-said-to-have-worked-with-us-special-forces; “DEBUNKED: Neo-Nazis Are Organizing Secretive Paramilitary Training Across America,” Periscope video, 1:14:17, n.d., posted by “Roman Wolf.” In 2012, Nazzaro married a Russian woman in New York City. He and his wife moved to St. Petersburg, Russia, with their children in 2018.Daniel De Simone, Andrei Soshnikov, and Ali Winston, “Neo-Nazi Rinaldo Nazzaro running US militant group The Base from Russia,” BBC News, January 24, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-51236915. After Nazzaro posted letters online allegedly from DHS and the Pentagon thanking him for his service, DHS confirmed in February 2021 Nazzaro’s employment but would not authenticate the letter of appreciation.Ben Makuch, “Department of Homeland Security Confirms Neo-Nazi Leader Used to Work For It,” Vice News, February 17, 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/epd7wa/department-of-homeland-security-confirms-neo-nazi-leader-used-to-work-for-it. According to Nazzaro, he did not develop his white nationalist beliefs until the end of his national security career, which led him to quit the field. He claimed he was “genuinely patriotic previously until I saw the light. I’m not the type of person who’s capable of living a lie or a double life so I simply walked away.”Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram post, February 17, 2021.

Nazzaro emerged in the white nationalist space in 2017 when he was affiliated with the Northwest Front separatist group. That December, Nazzaro appeared on a far-right podcast as Norman Spear and said the group’s ultimate goal is the creation of an independent ethno-nation-state in the U.S. Pacific Northwest.Jason Wilson, “Revealed: the true identity of the leader of an American neo-Nazi terror group,” Guardian (London), January 23, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/23/revealed-the-true-identity-of-the-leader-of-americas-neo-nazi-terror-group. He also posted instructional videos on guerrilla warfare on his BitChute account.Jason Wilson, “Revealed: the true identity of the leader of an American neo-Nazi terror group,” Guardian (London), January 23, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/23/revealed-the-true-identity-of-the-leader-of-americas-neo-nazi-terror-group. According to Nazzaro, the Northwest Front sought to use guerilla tactics similar to those of the Irish Republican Army to cause “death by a thousand cuts” to the United States through economic damage that would force the government to negotiate for the creation of an independent entity.“DEBUNKED: Neo-Nazis Are Organizing Secretive Paramilitary Training Across America,” Periscope video, 1:14:17, n.d., posted by “Roman Wolf.”

Inspired by the book Siege by American neo-Nazi James Mason, Nazzaro created The Base in July 2018 while alternately calling himself Norman Spear and Roman Wolf.Daniel De Simone, Andrei Soshnikov, and Ali Winston, “Neo-Nazi Rinaldo Nazzaro running US militant group The Base from Russia,” BBC News, January 24, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-51236915; “What is The Base?” Internet Archive video, 2:21, uploaded by “The Base” on September 21, 2019; Ryan Thorpe, “Homegrown hate,” Winnipeg Free Press, August 16, 2019, https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/local/homegrown-hate-547510902.html; “Who is U.S. neo-Nazi group ‘The Base’?,” Reuters, January 16, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-guns-rally-the-base-factbox/who-is-u-s-neo-nazi-group-the-base-idUSKBN1ZF2LU. In December 2018, Nazzaro traveled to Washington state, where he bought isolated plots of land for Base training camps. Nazzaro used a Delaware LLC called Base Global, which had a registered address in New Jersey.Jason Wilson, “Revealed: the true identity of the leader of an American neo-Nazi terror group,” Guardian (London), January 23, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/23/revealed-the-true-identity-of-the-leader-of-americas-neo-nazi-terror-group.

In January 2020, the Guardian identified Nazzaro as the man behind the Roman Wolf and Norman Spear identities. The newspaper also revealed Nazzaro was living in Russia.Jason Wilson, “Revealed: the true identity of the leader of an American neo-Nazi terror group,” Guardian (London), January 23, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/23/revealed-the-true-identity-of-the-leader-of-americas-neo-nazi-terror-group. Beginning in January 2020, U.S. authorities made multiple high-profile arrests of Base members. That January, federal authorities arrested three men suspected of membership in The Base who were allegedly plotting to murder a couple, supposedly affiliated with the far-left antifa movement, in Bartow County, Georgia.Doug Walker, “Judge: Case against men accused in white supremacist plot to go forward,” Rome News-Tribune, May 29, 2020, https://www.northwestgeorgianews.com/rome/news/local/judge-case-against-men-accused-in-white-supremacist-plot-to-go-forward/article_42700ffc-a1e5-11ea-a35a-9367e2d93e72.html; Derek Hawkins and Hannah Knowles, “Alleged members of white supremacy group ‘the Base’ charged with plotting to kill antifa couple,” Washington Post, January 18, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2020/01/18/the-base-white-supremacist-arrests/. That same month, three suspected Base members were arrested for allegedly stockpiling weapons and training for an assault on a pro-Second Amendment rally in Virginia, reportedly in the hopes of sparking a civil war.“Three Alleged Members of the Violent Extremist Group “The Base” Facing Federal Firearms and Alien-Related Charges,” U.S. Department of Justice, January 16, 2020, https://www.justice.gov/usao-md/pr/three-alleged-members-violent-extremist-group-base-facing-federal-firearms-and-alien; Michael Kunzelman, “Documents: Extremist group wanted rally to start civil war,” Associated Press, January 21, 2020, https://apnews.com/e5d17a8735678aa604a22f011c2685db. In October 2020, authorities in Michigan arrested two Base members, including self-professed leader Justen Watkins, accused of attempting to intimidate a podcast host in December 2019.Nicholas Bogel-Burroughs, “F.B.I. Arrests Michigan Men Tied to White Supremacist Group,” New York Times, October 29, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/29/us/fbi-arrests-the-base-michigan.html; Charlie Langton, “2 Michigan men facing gang felony charge for alleged ties with white supremacist group The Base,” Fox 2 Detroit, October 29, 2020, https://www.fox2detroit.com/news/2-michigan-men-facing-gang-felony-charge-for-alleged-ties-with-white-supremacist-group-the-base.

Nazzaro has posted a series of videos online “debunking” so-called media lies about The Base.Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram post, December 22, 2020. He has denied The Base was a neo-Nazi organization or that the network was preparing for a race war. He has further denied The Base was planning secret attacks or targeting Jews and minorities but was in reality waiting for the inevitable system collapse. He did admit The Base hosted an online library of training manuals on survivalism but claimed it was compiled by a Base member and he was not responsible for it. He has accused Vice News of illegally infiltrating private chats to “cherry pick” parts that support its narrative about The Base.“DEBUNKED: Neo-Nazis Are Organizing Secretive Paramilitary Training Across America,” Periscope video, 1:14:17, n.d., posted by “Roman Wolf.” Nazzaro denies that he has ever called for lone-wolf terror attacks, calling them “counterproductive.”“DEBUNKED: Neo-Nazis Are Organizing Secretive Paramilitary Training Across America,” Periscope video, 1:14:17, n.d., posted by “Roman Wolf.” The Base members arrested in 2020 were set up, according to Nazzaro.“DEBUNKED: Neo-Nazis Are Organizing Secretive Paramilitary Training Across America,” Periscope video, 1:14:17, n.d., posted by “Roman Wolf.”

Nazzaro has claimed that while the FBI took seriously violent allegations against The Base, he considered them to be a joke. He also denies that he ever claimed The Base was designed to unite nationalists to prepare for violent insurgency, as he reportedly said in the 2018 podcast in which he introduced The Base. According to Nazzaro, The Base’s strategy is to wait for societal collapse and then pick up the pieces afterward.“DEBUNKED: Neo-Nazis Are Organizing Secretive Paramilitary Training Across America,” Periscope video, 1:14:17, n.d., posted by “Roman Wolf.”

In late 2020, Nazzaro reportedly began building a new U.S.-based network to bring about a “system collapse” in the United States.Ben Makuch, “Russia-Based Neo-Nazi Terror Leader Offers Training To American Far Right,” Vice News, January 19, 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/3anj8w/russia-based-neo-nazi-terror-leader-offers-training-to-american-far-right. Nazzaro has claimed his new group is a legal organization providing self-defense and survival training to thrive after a system collapse. Through BitChute and other sites, Nazzaro has provided guides to creating an insurgency and seizing control of municipalities. He has further claimed the effects of his new group will not be immediate but will be noticeable through the coming decades.Ben Makuch, “Russia-Based Neo-Nazi Terror Leader Offers Training To American Far Right,” Vice News, January 19, 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/3anj8w/russia-based-neo-nazi-terror-leader-offers-training-to-american-far-right; Rinaldo Nazzaro, BitChute video, December 25, 2020; Rinaldo Nazzaro, BitChute video, December 23, 2020. BitChute closed Nazzaro’s account in January 2021.Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram post, January 20, 2021. Nazzaro also claims he has been banned from GabRinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram post, November 21, 2020. and de-platformed across the Internet, but he canceled his Twitter account because he was “sick” of social media.“DEBUNKED: Neo-Nazis Are Organizing Secretive Paramilitary Training Across America,” Periscope video, 1:14:17, n.d., posted by “Roman Wolf.”

On March 16, 2021, Nazzaro announced his BitChute account had been reinstated after an appeal. He posted a new video—recorded earlier in the month—to that account in which he announced he deleted his personal Telegram channel because he suspected half of his subscribers were “enemy spies.”Rinaldo Nazzaro, BitChute account, accessed March 16, 2021. He also announced he is resigning from any operational roles and disbanding his new group, which he said did not get much traction as people were unwilling to work with him because of rumors he is secretly an agent for the FBI or FSB. In the video, which had a date stamp of March 3, 2021, Nazzaro said he has been “shunned” and “reviled” by all sides and “essentially operationally neutralized” by “enemy propaganda” and paranoia about him and his ideology.Rinaldo Nazzaro, BitChute account, accessed March 16, 2021. Nonetheless, Nazzaro said he would continue to make videos and provide advice. Later that day, Nazzaro posted videos of himself talking about accelerationism and bringing about system collapse.Rinaldo Nazzaro, BitChute account, accessed March 16, 2021. Nazzaro also created a new Telegram channel that day.Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram account, accessed March 16, 2021.

Nazzaro again took a more active role in The Base, promoting the network on his social media accounts.Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram channel, April 7, 2021. He later deleted all content from his Telegram. On January 24, 2022, he announced he had decided to maintain “lower public profile.”Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram channel, January 24, 2022. On February 3, 2022, Nazzaro posted to his Telegram account he was immediately “relinquishing all administrative responsibilities and control over The Base.”Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram channel, February 3, 2022. Nazzaro claimed there was little more he could do to further The Base’s cause. He lamented that very few appeared to appreciate his efforts, but he praised the leadership of The Base for continuing its mission. Nazzaro further claimed he would focus his time on family and “humanitarian projects such as prisoner support.”Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram channel, February 3, 2022. Despite his resignation, Nazzaro posted audio messages to his Telegram channel in May 2022 explaining accelerationism and the need for The Base. While he explained he is no longer affiliated with The Base because he is “in exile” in Russia because of his U.S. legal issues, he remains supportive of The Base and its mission.Rinaldo Nazzaro, Telegram channel, May 18, 2022.

Mohammed al-Bukhaiti is a senior political official and spokesman for Yemen’s Houthi rebels, a.k.a. Ansar Allah.“What is happening in Yemen?,” Brookings Institution, September 11, 2019, https://www.brookings.edu/events/what-is-happening-in-yemen/. Since the Houthis launched their 2014 revolution against the Yemeni government, Bukhaiti has defended the Houthis’ actions to international media. According to Bukhaiti, the Houthi movement is a “national movement that strongly subscribes to the principles of Arab nationalism and pan-Islamism.”“Q&A: What do the Houthis want?,” Al Jazeera, October 2, 2014, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2014/10/2/qa-what-do-the-houthis-want.

According to Bukhaiti, Yemen’s 2014 revolution—in which the Houthis seized control of parts of the country culminating in the Houthis’ capture of the Yemeni capital of Sanaa in February 2015—was a revolution against the interference of the United States and other international powers in Yemeni affairs. Bukhaiti has argued that Yemen reclaimed its independence in 2014. Referring to the Saudi-led Arab coalition fighting against the Houthis, Bukhaiti has claimed international aggression against Yemen is an attempt to take away the country’s sovereignty.“What is happening in Yemen?,” Brookings Institution, September 11, 2019, https://www.brookings.edu/events/what-is-happening-in-yemen/. According to Bukhaiti, the Houthis’ capture of Yemeni capital of Sanaa was meant to ensure the country’s security.“Q&A: What do the Houthis want?,” Al Jazeera, October 2, 2014, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2014/10/2/qa-what-do-the-houthis-want. Bukhaiti has accused former Yemeni President Abd Rabbuh Mansour Hadi of aligning with Islamist militants, in particular the Muslim Brotherhood, al-Qaeda, and Salafi Islamists.“Houthis say defending Yemen against militants, not targeting Aden,” Reuters, March 24, 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0MK1K420150324. Bukhaiti claims the Houthis do not want to govern Yemen and will withdraw when an agreement is implemented to guarantee security.“Q&A: What do the Houthis want?,” Al Jazeera, October 2, 2014, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2014/10/2/qa-what-do-the-houthis-want.

Bukhaiti has claimed the Houthis do not rely on Iranian support,“Houthis can defend Yemen without Iran help: official,” Reuters, March 26, 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN0MM0JB20150326. but he has voiced pro-Iran views and spoken out against that country’s enemies. The Houthis share a common position with Hezbollah, Palestinian Islamic Jihad, and Iran toward the United States and Israel, according to Bukhaiti. While defending Iran in September 2019 against accusations the Islamic Republic was ultimately responsible for a recent Houthi drone attack inside Saudi Arabia, Bukhaiti accused the U.S. Trump administration of “political bankruptcy.”Jon Gambrell and Zeke Mille, “Trump: US locked and loaded for response to attack on Saudis,” Associated Press, September 15, 2019, https://apnews.com/article/269744b35e16422fa746b0c1504ceb4f.

Ibrahim al-Dulaimi is the Houthi ambassador to Iran. He is the former director-general of the Houthi-run Al Masirah TV station.“Government outraged as Yemen rebels make TV boss ‘ambassador’ to Iran,” National (Abu Dhabi), last updated March 1, 2020, https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/mena/government-outraged-as-yemen-rebels-make-tv-boss-ambassador-to-iran-1.899666.

In February 2015, the Iran-backed Houthis seized power in Yemen’s capital of Sanaa and expelled the government of President Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi, drawing protest from the U.N. Security Council.“Yemen’s Houthis Form Own Government in Sanaa,” Al Jazeera, February 6, 2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2015/02/yemen-houthi-rebels-announce-presidential-council-150206122736448.html. Hadi fled to Aden and rescinded his resignation.Mohammed Ghobari and Mohammed Mukhashaf, “Yemen’s Hadi Flees to Aden and Says He Is Still President,” Reuters, February 21, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/02/21/us-yemen-security-idUSKBN0LP08F20150221. The internationally recognized Yemeni government has since operated from Aden. Hadi severed Yemen’s relations with Iran in October 2015. The Houthis appointed Dulaimi as ambassador of the Houthi government to Iran in August 2019.“Government outraged as Yemen rebels make TV boss ‘ambassador’ to Iran,” National (Abu Dhabi), last updated March 1, 2020, https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/mena/government-outraged-as-yemen-rebels-make-tv-boss-ambassador-to-iran-1.899666. According to Al Masirah TV, a “presidential decree was issued appointing Ibrahim Mohammed Mohammed al-Dailami as an ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary for the republic of Yemen to the Islamic republic of Iran.”“Yemen Huthi rebels appoint ‘ambassador’ in Tehran,” France 24, August 18, 2019, https://www.france24.com/en/20190818-yemen-huthi-rebels-appoint-ambassador-in-tehran. The internationally recognized Yemeni government condemned the appointment as a breach of “the international laws and norms and contravenes United Nations Security Council resolutions related to the Yemen crisis.”“Yemen Huthi rebels appoint ‘ambassador’ in Tehran,” France 24, August 18, 2019, https://www.france24.com/en/20190818-yemen-huthi-rebels-appoint-ambassador-in-tehran. Iran accepted the appointment and transferred Yemen’s official diplomatic residence in Tehran to Dulaimi. The Yemeni government condemned Iran’s recognition of Dulaimi.“Yemen Denounces Iran’s Recognition of Houthis’ Envoy,” Asharq al-Awsat (London), November 20, 2019, https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2000266/yemen-denounces-irans-recognition-houthis-envoy. Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei has since met with Dulaimi and the Iranian government has recognized the legitimacy of the Houthi government. In October 2020, Iran appointed its own ambassador, Hassan Eyrlou, to the Houthi government.“Tehran Boosts Support for Houthis by Appointing Ambassador to Sanaa,” Asharq al-Awsat (London), October 18, 2020, https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2571116/tehran-boosts-support-houthis-appointing-ambassador-sanaa.

Just before the one-year anniversary of the January 3, 2020, death of IRGC commander Qasem Soleimani in a U.S. airstrike, Dulaimi claimed the Houthis had launched a series of attacks in retaliation for Soleimani’s death. Among the assaults Dulaimi claimed was a December 30, 2020, attack on Aden’s airport that killed at least 25 and wounded more than 110 others, for which Houthi spokesman Mohammed al-Bukhaiti had previously denied responsibility. The attacks were coordinated with other Iran-backed militias in the region, according to Dulaimi, who called Soleimani a “comrade in arms.”“Houthis concede staging attacks to avenge Soleimani’s death,” The Reference,  January 12, 2021, https://www.thereference-paris.com/14727; Saeed Al-Batati and Vivian Yee, “Yemen Airport Is Attacked as New Government Arrives,” New York Times, December 30, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/30/world/middleeast/yemen-explosion-airport.html.

Mohammed Ali al-Houthi is a member of the Houthi government in Yemen, which the extremist group created after occupying the country’s capital of Sanaa and seizing power in 2015. Houthi is a former president of the Supreme Revolutionary Committee (SRC), the Houthis’ interim government instituted after dissolving Yemen’s parliament in February 2015. He is also a member of the Supreme Political Council (SPC), the SRC’s successor governing body.Rod Nordland, “Rebels in Yemen Say They Intend to Form a New Government,” New York Times, February 6, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/07/world/middleeast/yemen-rebels-say-they-will-dissolve-parliament.html?_r=1; “Houthi militia installs ‘presidential council’ to run Yemen,” Middle East Eye, February 3, 2015, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/houthi-militia-installs-presidential-council-run-yemen; “SRC hands over authority to SPC,” Yemen News Agency, August 15, 2016, http://sabanews.net/en/news437023.htm. Houthi is a cousin of Houthi military leader Abdel Malek al-Houthi.“Houthi militia installs ‘presidential council’ to run Yemen,” Middle East Eye, February 3, 2015, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/houthi-militia-installs-presidential-council-run-yemen.

The Houthis have waged a series of bloody insurgencies against the Yemeni government since 2004, overthrowing them and seizing power in Sanaa in 2015.Ahmed al-Haj, “Yemen Shiite Rebels Harden Their Protest Demands,” Associated Press, August 25, 2014, https://wtop.com/news/2014/08/yemen-shiite-rebels-harden-their-protest-demands/; Rod Nordland, “Rebels in Yemen Say They Intend to Form a New Government,” New York Times, February 6, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/07/world/middleeast/yemen-rebels-say-they-will-dissolve-parliament.html?_r=1. On February 3, 2015, the Houthis dissolved Yemen’s parliament and replaced it with the SRC. Mohammed Ali al-Houthi signed the declaration of the new government, which also declared him president of the SRC.Rod Nordland, “Rebels in Yemen Say They Intend to Form a New Government,” New York Times, February 6, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/07/world/middleeast/yemen-rebels-say-they-will-dissolve-parliament.html?_r=1; “Houthi militia installs ‘presidential council’ to run Yemen,” Middle East Eye, February 3, 2015, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/houthi-militia-installs-presidential-council-run-yemen; Hesham S. Al-Kibsi, “Al-Houthi: Hadi’s Retraction From Resignation A Desperate Attempt For Violence,” Yemen Observer, March 21, 2015, https://archive.is/20150404135044/http://yemenobserver.com/front-page/1386-al-houthi-hadi%E2%80%99s-retraction-from-resignation-a-desperate-attempt-for-violence.html#selection-717.1-717.79. Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf Cooperation Council refused to recognize the legitimacy of the Houthi takeover and labeled it a coup.Mohammed Ghobari, “Gulf countries, opposition say Houthi takeover in Yemen a ‘coup,’” Reuters, February 7, 2015, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-security/gulf-countries-opposition-say-houthi-takeover-in-yemen-a-coup-idUSKBN0LB07220150207. The SRC transferred authority to the SPC in 2016.“SPC member to German’s Der Spiegel: Yemen has become a test bed for American weapons Saba – Yemen News Agency, October 7, 2020, https://www.saba.ye/en/news3111474.htm.

On March 25, 2015, a Saudi-led Arab coalition began a military campaign against the Houthis in Sanaa. Houthi was wounded the first night of the campaign.“Saudis launch air campaign to defend Yemen government,” Al Jazeera, last updated March 26, 2015, http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2015/3/25/houthi-aden.html. That November, he sent a letter to U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon calling for the U.N. Security Council to end the Saudi-led military operation against the Houthis.“HRC Chairman holds UN, UNSC accountable for stopping aggression,” Saba Yemen News Agency, November 11, 2015, https://www.saba.ye/en/news409307.htm. Houthi has referred to Saudi Arabia’s lack of a U.N. Security Council mandate to launch military strikes on Yemen as a “great crime.”Susanne Koelbl, “Yemen’s Houthi Rebel Leader – ‘The Americans Label Anyone Who Opposes Their Policy as Terrorists,’” Spiegel International, October 5, 2020, https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/yemen-s-houthi-rebel-leader-the-americans-label-anyone-who-opposes-their-policy-as-terrorists-a-204840c1-055f-4d06-abdb-c4de7c7c1384.

Houthi claims his group wants peace in Yemen and is prepared to accept a ceasefire, but only if there is an end to the blockade of the country and the Arab coalition’s military strikes.Susanne Koelbl, “Yemen’s Houthi Rebel Leader – ‘The Americans Label Anyone Who Opposes Their Policy as Terrorists,’” Spiegel International, October 5, 2020, https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/yemen-s-houthi-rebel-leader-the-americans-label-anyone-who-opposes-their-policy-as-terrorists-a-204840c1-055f-4d06-abdb-c4de7c7c1384. In November 2018, Houthi wrote an op-ed in the Washington Post calling for peace in Yemen and an end to Saudi airstrikes in the country. He accused the United States of participating in “and sometimes leading the aggression on Yemen,” while also accusing U.S. President Donald Trump of allowing the war to continue to profit from weapons sales.Mohammed Ali al-Houthi, “Houthi leader: We want peace for Yemen, but Saudi airstrikes must stop,” Washington Post, November 9, 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/global-opinions/wp/2018/11/09/houthi-leader-we-want-peace-for-yemen-but-saudi-airstrikes-must-stop/.

Houthi has denied his militia receives any support from Iran. He denies rumors he has traveled to Iran or personally has ties to the Iranian government. Houthi has also accused the United States and Saudi Arabia of falsely targeting Yemen to weaken Iran.Susanne Koelbl, “Yemen’s Houthi Rebel Leader – ‘The Americans Label Anyone Who Opposes Their Policy as Terrorists,’” Spiegel International, October 5, 2020, https://www.spiegel.de/international/world/yemen-s-houthi-rebel-leader-the-americans-label-anyone-who-opposes-their-policy-as-terrorists-a-204840c1-055f-4d06-abdb-c4de7c7c1384.

On January 10, 2021, U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo announced that the United States would designate the Houthi rebels as a terrorist group on January 19. On Twitter, Houthi condemned the move and accused the Trump administration of “terrorist” behavior.Aziz El Yaakoubi, Jonathan Landay, and Matt Spetalnick, “U.S. to designate Yemen's Houthi movement as foreign terrorist group,” Reuters, January 10, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN29F0P5; John Hudson and Missy Ryan, “After internal battle, Trump administration to declare Yemen’s Houthis a terrorist group, raising humanitarian concerns,” Washington Post, January 10, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/yemen-terrorist-designation-houthis-war/2021/01/10/86c011a4-53b3-11eb-89bc-7f51ceb6bd57_story.html. On June 5, 2021, Houthi accused the U.N. Security Council on Twitter of full responsibility for Yemen’s humanitarian crisis. According to Houthi, the council erred in its decision to place Yemen under the jurisdiction Chapter VII of the U.N. charter, which allows the council to identify a threat to peace and take military action. He further claimed the council made its decision based on misleading reports from countries in the Saudi-led coalition.“Al-Houthi holds Security Council fully responsible for humanitarian disaster in Yemen,” Yemen News Agency (SABA), June 5, 2021, https://www.saba.ye/en/news3142610.htm.

Hasan Irlu is a U.S.-designated Iranian official who serves as the Iranian regime’s envoy to the Houthis in Yemen. An official of the U.S.-designated Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps-Quds Force (IRGC-QF), Irlu was designated by the U.S. Department of the Treasury on December 8, 2020, for acting on behalf of the IRGC-QF.“The United States Sanctions IRGC Facilitators in Iran and an IRGC Official in Yemen,” U.S. Department of State, December 8, 2020, https://www.state.gov/the-united-states-sanctions-irgc-facilitators-in-iran-and-an-irgc-official-in-yemen/. The IRGC-QF specializes in foreign missions, providing training, funding, and weapons to extremist groups, including Iraqi insurgents, Hezbollah, and Hamas.

A close associate of former IRGC-QF Commander Qasem Soleimani, Irlu has supported IRGC-QF efforts for years, as he provided advanced weapons and trainings to the Houthi movement.“Treasury Sanctions Iran’s Envoy in Yemen and University Facilitating Recruitment for Qods Force,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, December 8, 2020, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm1205. It is alleged that Irlu also coordinated with other IRGC-QF leaders to support the Houthi’s operations in Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula.“Treasury Sanctions Iran’s Envoy in Yemen and University Facilitating Recruitment for Qods Force,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, December 8, 2020, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm1205. Irlu is also accused of helping train Iran-based members of the Lebanese group Hezbollah.“US announces terror sanctions against Iran’s ‘ambassador’ to Houthis in Yemen,” Arab News, December 9, 2020, https://www.arabnews.com/node/1774316/middle-east.

In early October 2020, Irlu was named the Iranian regime’s envoy to the Houthi rebels. Irlu met with the Foreign Minister of the Houthi administration, Hesham Sharaf Abdallah, on October 27, 2020, where he presented Abdallah with his diplomatic credentials and claimed that Iran is making every effort to achieve peace in Yemen.“Yemen's Houthis want to strengthen Iran ties, minister tells Tehran's new ambassador,” Reuters, October 27, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/yemen-security-iran-int/yemens-houthis-want-to-strengthen-iran-ties-minister-tells-tehrans-new-ambassador-idUSKBN27C1WF. Iran is the only nation that has officially recognized and appointed representation to the Yemen-based movement.“Houthis vow to bolster Iran ties as Tehran's new Hezbollah-linked 'ambassador' makes appearance,” Arab News, October 27, 2020, https://www.arabnews.com/node/1754891/middle-east.

Media sources claim Irlu’s appointment serves to strengthen Tehran’s approach to support proxy groups against Iran’s rivals in the region.“Houthis vow to bolster Iran ties as Tehran's new Hezbollah-linked 'ambassador' makes appearance,” Arab News, October 27, 2020, https://www.arabnews.com/node/1754891/middle-east. On November 9, 2020, Irlu met with senior officials in the Houthi-supported Supreme Political Council (SPC) and National Salvation Government (NSG) where Irlu condemned the actions of the Saudi-led coalition, claiming “it is necessary to stop the war and blockade and help the Yemeni nation.”“Yemen: Houthi officials meet Iran's new envoy in Sanaa,” Middle East Monitor, November 9, 2020, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20201109-yemen-houthi-officials-meet-irans-new-envoy-in-sanaa/. As of December 2020, Yemen remains locked in a sectarian civil war between the Iran-backed Houthi rebels, the Southern Transitional Council (STC) backed by the United Arab Emirates (UAE), and the Yemeni government which is supported by Saudi Arabia. The Houthis began taking control of parts of the country in mid-2014 and currently control the capital, Sanaa, and other parts of the north. The ongoing violence and political instability has resulted in the world’s worst humanitarian crisis as over 80 percent of the Yemeni population requires humanitarian assistance and protection.“Yemen crisis: Why is there a war?,” BBC News, June 19, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29319423.

On December 8, 2020, Irlu was designated by the U.S. Department of the Treasury as a Specially Designated National for acting on behalf of the IRGC-QF.“Treasury Sanctions Iran’s Envoy in Yemen and University Facilitating Recruitment for Qods Force,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, December 8, 2020, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm1205.

Ebrahim Raisi was the president of Iran from June 2021 until his death in May 2024.“Iran's new hardline President Ebrahim Raisi sworn in,” BBC News, August 5, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-58097195. He previously served as chief of Iran’s judiciary and deputy chair of the powerful Assembly of Experts, which is responsible for the succession of the supreme leader. Raisi was a religious and political hardliner whose devotion to the regime and close relationship with Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei made him a potential successor to Khamenei. The United States sanctioned Raisi in 2019 after he was appointed to lead Iran’s judiciary, which is accused of torturing and abusing prisoners.“Treasury Designates Supreme Leader of Iran’s Inner Circle Responsible for Advancing Regime’s Domestic and Foreign Oppression,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 4, 2019, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm824; Alex Vatanka, “The Supreme Leader’s Apprentice Is Running for President,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/irans-supreme-leader-has-picked-his-candidate-for-president/; Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Hardline Iranian cleric consolidates leadership position,” Reuters, March 12, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-judiciary-raisi-newsmaker/hardline-iranian-cleric-consolidates-leadership-position-idUSKBN1QT1GO. Raisi won Iran’s June 2021 presidential election, which many observers said was designed to favor him.“Iran election: Hardliner Raisi will become president,” BBC News, June 20, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57537027. Raisi died in a helicopter crash on May 19, 2024.Parisa Hafezi and Yomna Mohamed, “Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi, hardline ally of Supreme Leader, killed in helicopter crash,” Reuters, May 20, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hopes-fade-wreckage-found-helicopter-carrying-iranian-president-raisi-2024-05-20/.

As he seized control of Iran during the 1979 Islamic Revolution, Ruhollah Khomeini instituted a new Islamist agenda that has become known as Khomeinism. After the revolution, a teenage Raisi was allegedly one of 70 students selected to participate in courses on Khomeinist governance and policy. During these courses Raisi first met Khamenei, who was one of the instructors. Raisi went on to become a law clerk in Karaj.Alex Vatanka, “The Supreme Leader’s Apprentice Is Running for President,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/irans-supreme-leader-has-picked-his-candidate-for-president/. At age 20, Raisi became the district attorney of Karaj. He later went on to serve as deputy prosecutor-general and then prosecutor-general of Tehran, which he served as until 1994.“Ebrahim Raeesi Was Officially Appointed as the Chief of Iran’s Judiciary,” Iran International, March 7, 2019, https://iranintl.com/en/iran/ebrahim-raeesi-was-officially-appointed-chief-iran%E2%80%99s-judiciary. Raisi’s tenure was marked by mass execution of political opponents. In the summer of 1988, for example, Raisi oversaw the execution of an estimated 5,000 political prisoners under Khomeini’s orders. Raisi reportedly drew the attention of Khomeini, who appointed him as a judge at Evin prison, Iran’s primary facility for political prisoners.Golnaz Esfandiari, “In Iran, Emerging Hard-Liner Stakes Future On Unseating Rohani,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, April 6, 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-presidential-election-candidate-hard-liner-ebrahim-raisi/28414689.html. Amnesty International has accused Raisi of being part of a “death committee,” a panel of four judges who oversaw secret death sentences of about 5,000 prisoners buried in mass graves that are “systematically concealed by the Iranian authorities.”“Iran election: Hardliner Raisi will become president,” BBC News, June 20, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57537027. After serving as Tehran’s prosecutor-general, Raisi spent 10 years as head of the General Inspection Office of Iran. His tenure became known for his hardline on corruption.“Ebrahim Raisi: Chief Justice of Iran,” United Against Nuclear Iran, accessed December 8, 2020, https://www.unitedagainstnucleariran.com/ebrahim-raisi-chief-justice-of-iran.

Raisi’s career continued to ascend under Khomeini’s successor, Khamenei. After beginning his legal career, Raisi married the daughter of regime hardliner Ayatollah Alam al-Hoda. Raisi leveraged the close relationship Hoda formed with Khamenei after the latter’s ascent to the role of supreme leader in 1989.Alex Vatanka, “The Supreme Leader’s Apprentice Is Running for President,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/irans-supreme-leader-has-picked-his-candidate-for-president/. In 2004, Raisi assumed the role of first deputy chief justice of Iran’s judiciary.“Ebrahim Raeesi Was Officially Appointed as the Chief of Iran’s Judiciary,” Iran International, March 7, 2019, https://iranintl.com/en/iran/ebrahim-raeesi-was-officially-appointed-chief-iran%E2%80%99s-judiciary; “Ebrahim Raisi: Chief Justice of Iran,” United Against Nuclear Iran, accessed December 8, 2020, https://www.unitedagainstnucleariran.com/ebrahim-raisi-chief-justice-of-iran. In 2006, Raisi joined Iran’s Assembly of Experts. In 2013, Raisi became lead prosecutor for the Special Court of the Clergy, the office that punishes dissenting voices among Iran’s religious class.Alex Vatanka, “The Supreme Leader’s Apprentice Is Running for President,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/irans-supreme-leader-has-picked-his-candidate-for-president/. In 2014, Raisi began a two-year term as Iran’s attorney general.“Ebrahim Raeesi Was Officially Appointed as the Chief of Iran’s Judiciary,” Iran International, March 7, 2019, https://iranintl.com/en/iran/ebrahim-raeesi-was-officially-appointed-chief-iran%E2%80%99s-judiciary; “Ebrahim Raisi: Chief Justice of Iran,” United Against Nuclear Iran, accessed December 8, 2020, https://www.unitedagainstnucleariran.com/ebrahim-raisi-chief-justice-of-iran. In 2016, Khamenei appointed Raisi the head of Astan Qods Razavi, which oversees a multibillion-dollar religious foundation that manages donations to the Iman Reza Shrine in the city of Mashhad.Golnaz Esfandiari, “In Iran, Emerging Hard-Liner Stakes Future On Unseating Rohani,” Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, April 6, 2017, https://www.rferl.org/a/iran-presidential-election-candidate-hard-liner-ebrahim-raisi/28414689.html; Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Hardline cleric Raisi to take on Rouhani in Iran’s presidential election,” Reuters, April 9, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-elections-raisi-idUSKBN17B0DZ. Raisi’s appointments fueled speculation that Khamenei favored him as the shrine is Iran’s holiest Shiite pilgrimage site and a steady source of revenue for the country.Alex Vatanka, “The Supreme Leader’s Apprentice Is Running for President,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2017, https://foreignpolicy.com/2017/04/12/irans-supreme-leader-has-picked-his-candidate-for-president/.

Raisi sought to capitalize on his favor in the regime by challenging the more moderate President Hassan Rouhani in Iran’s May 2017 elections. Raisi blamed Rouhani’s nuclear negotiations with the West for weakening Iran’s global and domestic standings. In particular, Raisi attacked Rouhani on his economic policy and claimed Iran continued to underperform even after negotiating a deal with Western powers to lift economic sanctions in exchange for limiting the country’s nuclear development.Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Hardline cleric Raisi to take on Rouhani in Iran’s presidential election,” Reuters, April 9, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-elections-raisi-idUSKBN17B0DZ. Rouhani won re-election with more than 23 million votes to Raisi’s 15.8 million.Emma Graham-Harrison and Saeed Kamali Dehghan, “Iran: Hassan Rouhani wins landslide in huge victory for reformists,” Guardian (London), May 20, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/20/iran-hassan-rouhani-set-for-landslide-in-huge-victory-for-reformists. The loss did not dimmish Raisi’s standing with Khamenei, however. On March 7, 2019, Khamenei appointed Raisi head of Iran’s judiciary, replacing Ayatollah Sadeq Amoli Larijani. The appointment lasts for a period of five years. Less than a week later, Raisi was elected deputy chief of the Assembly of Experts.Bozorgmehr Sharafedin, “Hardline Iranian cleric consolidates leadership position,” Reuters, March 12, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-judiciary-raisi-newsmaker/hardline-iranian-cleric-consolidates-leadership-position-idUSKBN1QT1GO; “Ebrahim Raeesi Was Officially Appointed as the Chief of Iran’s Judiciary,” Iran International, March 7, 2019, https://iranintl.com/en/iran/ebrahim-raeesi-was-officially-appointed-chief-iran%E2%80%99s-judiciary.

Raisi’s appointments to the head of the judiciary and deputy chief of the Assembly of Experts demonstrated that he continued to remain in Khamenei’s favor. His sustained presence in the Iranian government and his perceived position as a Khamenei protégé have made him one of the top candidates speculated to succeed Khamenei, according to regional observers.

Raisi ran again for Iran’s presidency in June 2021, promising to fight corruption. Unlike in 2017, Raisi received the support of the regime. Other prominent candidates were barred from the election, leaving Raisi as the primary conservative in the race and the government favorite. Election observers posited the election was designed to favor Raisi. Raisi’s victory appeared assured as Iranians voted on June 18, 2021.“Iranians vote in election all but guaranteed to deliver an ultra-conservative president,” CNN, June 18, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/06/18/middleeast/iran-election-voting-intl/index.html. Raisi was declared the winner on June 19 after winning 62 percent of the vote. He promised to “form a hard-working, revolutionary and anti-corruption government.”“Iran election: Israel PM warns world of Ebrahim Raisi,” BBC News, June 19, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57541346; “Iran election: Hardliner Raisi will become president,” BBC News, June 20, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57537027. Pointing to Raisi’s connection to human rights abuses in Iranian prisons, Amnesty International Secretary-General Agnès Callamard called his election “a grim reminder that impunity reigns supreme in Iran.”“Iran election: Hardliner Raisi will become president,” BBC News, June 20, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57537027. Responding to Raisi’s election, newly installed Israeli Prime Minister Naftali Bennett warned Iran’s regime continued to seek the development of nuclear weapons.“Iran election: Israel PM warns world of Ebrahim Raisi,” BBC News, June 19, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-57541346. On June 21, Raisi called for the United States to return to the 2015 nuclear agreement with Iran, which former U.S. President Donald Trump left in 2018. At the same time, Raisi said he would not meet with President Joe Biden even if the United States returned to the agreement.Tamara Qiblawi, Frederik Pleitgen, Claudia Otto, Ramin Mostaghim, and Lauren Said-Moorhouse, Iran's hardline president-elect Ebrahim Raisi says he will not meet with Biden,” CNN, June 21, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/06/21/middleeast/ebrahim-raisi-iran-president-news-conference-intl/index.html.

On August 3, 2021, Khamenei officially endorsed Raisi as Iran’s next president during a ceremony in Tehran. Raisi pledged to continue international nuclear talks while also promising to take steps to lift the “tyrannical” U.S. sanctions on Iran.Parisa Hafezi, “Incoming president says Iran will seek end to 'tyrannical' US sanctions,” Reuters, August 3, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/irans-new-president-raisi-says-he-will-take-steps-lift-us-sanctions-2021-08-03/. Raisi was sworn in as president on August 5.“Iran's new hardline President Ebrahim Raisi sworn in,” BBC News, August 5, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-58097195. Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) leader Ziad al-Nakhalah attended the inauguration.Aaron Boxerman, “Hamas, Islamic Jihad leaders arrive in Tehran for Iran president’s inauguration,” Times of Israel, August 5, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hamas-islamic-jihad-leaders-arrive-in-tehran-for-iran-presidents-inauguration/. After he was sworn in, Raisi called for the lifting of all “illegal US sanctions against the Iranian nation” while voicing support for “any diplomatic plans” to lift sanctions.“Iran's new hardline President Ebrahim Raisi sworn in,” BBC News, August 5, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-58097195.

Raisi pledged Iran’s continued support of the Palestinians against Israel, while also denouncing normalization as stabbing the Palestinians in the back.“Normalization with Israel a stab in the back of Palestine: Raisi,” Tehran Times, April 15, 2023, https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/483688/Normalization-with-Israel-a-stab-in-the-back-of-Palestine-Raisi. During an April 9, 2023, phone call with Syrian President Bashar al-Assad, Raisi declared world opinion is shifting away from Israel and toward the so-called Iranian axis of resistance.“In phone call, Iran’s Raisi, Syria’s Assad tout ‘weakness’ and ‘collapse’ of Israel,” Times of Israel, April 9, 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-phone-call-irans-raisi-syrias-assad-tout-weakness-and-collapse-of-israel/. In an April 13 phone call with Pakistani Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif, Raisi expressed his desire to see a united Muslim front end what he called Zionist atrocities.“Raisi calls for united Muslim front against Zionist regime,” Tehran Times, April 14, 2023, https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/483644/Raisi-calls-for-united-Muslim-front-against-Zionist-regime. On April 14, Raisi addressed militants in the Gaza Strip during a virtual rally for Iran’s annual Quds Day (“Jerusalem Day”). Deceased Iranian Supreme Leader Ruhollah Khomeini instituted the annual commemoration on the last Friday of Ramadan as a day of protest against Israel. In his first address directed solely to the Gaza Strip, Raisi encouraged the gathered members of Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad to continue their violent struggle against Israel. Raisi told the militants the “initiative to self-determination is today in the hands of the Palestinian fighters.”Fares Akram, “In first, Iran’s president addresses Palestinians in Gaza,” Associated Press, April 14, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/iran-palestinians-gaza-jerusalem-256ccdd3029ba63f8b19302a6640b363.

On October 7, 2023, one day after the 50th anniversary of the Yom Kippur War, Hamas launched a massive surprise attack on Israel, overrunning the border with gunmen while launching thousands of rockets. The attack killed 1,200 while Hamas and PIJ took more than 240 others hostage. On October 9, Raisi held a phone call with PIJ’s Nakhalah, during which Raisi praised the “brilliant and impressive victories” of the “Palestinian resistance.”Gianluca Pacchiani, “Iran president praises ‘innovative operation’ in call with Islamic Jihad chief,” Times of Israel, October 9, 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/iran-president-praises-innovative-operation-in-call-with-islamic-jihad-chief/. Iran denied a role in the attack and the U.S. government said initially it had not seen evidence of direct Iranian involvement. The Wall Street Journal reported several senior Hamas and Hezbollah sources confirmed the participation of Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) officials in planning the attack in meetings in Beirut in August 2023. According to those officials, the IRGC had provided a greenlight for the attack in September.Summer Said, Benoit Faucon, and Stephen Kalin, “Iran Helped Plot Attack on Israel Over Several Weeks,” Wall Street Journal, October 8, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/iran-israel-hamas-strike-planning-bbe07b25. Following October 7, Israel declared war on Hamas and launched Operation Swords of Iron to uproot the terrorist group from the Gaza Strip.“IDF launches Operation Swords of Iron amid Hamas terror onslaught,” Israel Hayom, last updated October 8, 2023, https://www.israelhayom.com/2023/10/07/idf-launches-operation-swords-of-iron-amid-hamas-terror-onslaught/. Raisi claimed Israel’s response “may force everyone to take action.”Agence France-Presse, “Iran's Raisi Says Israeli Actions ‘May Force Everyone' to Act,” Voice of America, October 29, 2024, https://www.voanews.com/a/iran-s-raisi-says-israeli-actions-may-force-everyone-to-act/7332056.html.

In a December 2023 meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin, Raisi accused Israel of carrying out genocide in Gaza.“Iran’s Raisi says ‘genocide’ unfolding in Gaza as he meets Russia’s Putin,” Al Jazeera, December 7, 2023, https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/7/irans-raisi-says-genocide-under-way-in-gaza-as-he-meets-russias-putin. In a January 23, 2024, meeting with Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Raisi called for the international community to impose an economic blockade on Israel. Agence France-Presse, “Iran's Raisi, Erdogan pledge to contain Gaza violence,” Al-Monitor, January 23, 2024, https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2024/01/irans-raisi-erdogan-pledge-contain-gaza-violence. During a March 27, 2024, meeting with Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh, Raisi praised Hamas for the October 7 attack. He chastised the United States for its support of Israel and labeled diplomatic moves by the United States and Israel as “deceitful.” Nigar Bayramli, “Iran’s President Raisi Condemns Western Support for Israel in Gaza Crisis,” Caspian News, March 28, 2024, https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/irans-president-raisi-condemns-western-support-for-israel-in-gaza-crisis-2024-3-28-0/ He further claimed that Arab countries that normalized relations with Israel were now “remorseful.”Nigar Bayramli, “Iran’s President Raisi Condemns Western Support for Israel in Gaza Crisis,” Caspian News, March 28, 2024, https://caspiannews.com/news-detail/irans-president-raisi-condemns-western-support-for-israel-in-gaza-crisis-2024-3-28-0/.

On April 13, 2024, Iran launched hundreds of drones and missiles toward Israel. Israel, U.S., British, and regional forces shot down most of the rockets, which caused minor damage to an Israeli military base and wounded a child in southern Israel. The day after the attack, Raisi praised the IRGC and called the attack a “lesson to the Zionist enemy.”Benoit Faucon, “Iranian President Hails Attack as ‘Lesson’ for Israel,” Wall Street Journal, April 15, 2024, https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/israel-iran-strikes-live-coverage/card/iranian-president-hails-attack-as-lesson-for-israel-BVxr8zGc765oyK1yFQnW. Raisi further threatened “a decisive and much stronger response” if Israel retaliated. Benoit Faucon, “Iranian President Hails Attack as ‘Lesson’ for Israel,” Wall Street Journal, April 15, 2024, https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/israel-iran-strikes-live-coverage/card/iranian-president-hails-attack-as-lesson-for-israel-BVxr8zGc765oyK1yFQnW. He claimed that Iran’s attack had been limited and that if Iran had wanted to carry out a bigger attack, “nothing would remain from the Zionist regime.”“The Latest | Netanyahu says Israel will decide how to respond as Iran warns against retaliation,” Associated Press, April 17, 2024, https://apnews.com/article/israel-iran-hamas-latest-04-17-2024-7e4ba24fbb150f020a2d240dad9d462f.

On April 19, 2024, Israel launched a drone strike against a military base in Isfahan, Iran. Iranian officials claimed explosions heard around Isfahan resulted from Iranian air defenses striking the drones. The Iranian regime referred to the incident as an attack by “infiltrators.”Raja Abdulrahim, “Israel reportedly strikes an air defense site in Syria,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news/israel-reportedly-strikes-an-air-defense-site-in-syria; “Live Updates: Muted Reactions to Israeli Strikes on Iran Hint at De-Escalation,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news. At the same time as the strike on Iran, Israel sent missiles toward a Syrian air defense site, causing physical damage.Raja Abdulrahim, “Israel reportedly strikes an air defense site in Syria,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news/israel-reportedly-strikes-an-air-defense-site-in-syria; “Live Updates: Muted Reactions to Israeli Strikes on Iran Hint at De-Escalation,” New York Times, April 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2024/04/18/world/israel-iran-gaza-war-news. On April 22, Raisi began a state visit to Pakistan by accusing Israel of committing genocide in Gaza with support from the United States. During a press conference with Pakistani Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif, Raisi called on Israel to accept an immediate ceasefire. Ayaz Gul, “Iran and Pakistan urge Gaza cease-fire,” Voice of America, April 22, 2024, https://www.voanews.com/a/iran-s-president-arrives-in-pakistan-for-wide-ranging-talks/7579598.html.

On May 19, 2024, a helicopter carrying Raisi, Foreign Minister Hossein Amir-Abdollahian, and six other passengers and crew crashed in the Varzeqan region near the Azerbaijan border. The officials were returning from a state visit to Azerbaijan. Reports cited poor weather conditions as the cause of the crash. Iran confirmed Raisi’s death the following day after recovering wreckage during heavy rain, blizzards, and reportedly difficult terrain in the mountainous area. On May 20, Khamenei declared five days of mourning for Raisi. He appointed First Vice President Mohammad Mokhber as interim president. Deputy Foreign Minister Ali Bagheri Kani was appointed as acting foreign minister. Under Iranian law, a new presidential election must be held within 50 days. Russian President Vladimir Putin called Raisi a “true friend of Russia,” while the leaders of Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Iraq, Egypt, and other Middle Eastern nations sent messages of condolences.Parisa Hafezi and Yomna Mohamed, “Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi, hardline ally of Supreme Leader, killed in helicopter crash,” Reuters, May 20, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hopes-fade-wreckage-found-helicopter-carrying-iranian-president-raisi-2024-05-20/. Khamenei eulogized Raisi as a “warm-hearted, humble and valued servant” who worked on behalf of the Iranian people despite heavy criticism from people who wished him ill will.“Leader declares 5 days of mourning over Raeisi's martyrdom,” Mehr News Agency, May 20, 2024, https://en.mehrnews.com/news/215403/Leader-declares-5-days-of-mourning-over-Raeisi-s-martyrdom.

Immediately following reports of the helicopter crash on May 19, rumors circulated on social media linking Israel to the accident. That night, a joke spread across social media crediting a Mossad agent named Eli Copter for the crash. Some news agencies picked up the story and reported it as a legitimate suspicion. Hamas-linked Telegram channels also reported the accusation.Josh Kaplan, “French TV channel mistakenly reports Mossad agent ‘Eli Copter’ behind Iran president crash,” Jewish Chronicle (London), May 20, 2024, https://www.thejc.com/news/world/french-tv-channel-mistakenly-reports-mossad-agent-eli-copter-behind-iran-president-crash-un4r2sch. On May 20, an Israeli official confirmed to Reuters that Israel was not involved.Parisa Hafezi and Yomna Mohamed, “Iranian President Ebrahim Raisi, hardline ally of Supreme Leader, killed in helicopter crash,” Reuters, May 20, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hopes-fade-wreckage-found-helicopter-carrying-iranian-president-raisi-2024-05-20/.

Mojtaba Khamenei is the second son and reported heir apparent of Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei.Julian Borger, “Mojtaba Khamenei: gatekeeper to Iran’s supreme leader,” Guardian (London), June 22, 2009, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jun/22/mojtaba-khamenei-iran-protest. The supreme leader reportedly transferred authority to his son in December 2020 amid rumors of his failing health.Darragh Roche, “Journalist Claims Iran’s Supreme Leader Transfers Power to Son as Health Deteriorates,” Newsweek, December 5, 2020, https://www.newsweek.com/fakhrizadeh-iran-1552586. Observers have suspected for several years that the elder Khamenei has been trying to position his son as his successor. According to the U.S. government, Ali Khamenei has “delegated a part of his leadership responsibilities to” his son, who works closely with the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Quds Force and the Basij militia.“Treasury Designates Supreme Leader of Iran’s Inner Circle Responsible for Advancing Regime’s Domestic and Foreign Oppression,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 4, 2019, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm824.

Mojtaba Khamenei is one of six children and grew up in Tehran after the 1979 Islamic Revolution. In 1987, he graduated from the prestigious Alavi High School, where the children of many other regime insiders attended. After high school, Khamenei served in the Iranian armed forces during the final years of the Iran-Iraq War. In 1999, he traveled to the Iranian holy city of Qom to study theology under ultra-conservative religious clerics.Muhammad Sahimi, “The Man in the Shadow: Mojtaba Khamenei,” PBS, July 16, 2009, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2009/07/the-man-in-the-shadow-mojtaba-khamenei.html. Khamenei is married to the daughter of previous parliamentary speaker Gholam-Ali Haddad-Adel.Hollie McKay, “Is Iran’s Supreme Leader preparing to designate his son as the next in line?,” Fox News, December 7, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/world/is-irans-supreme-leader-preparing-to-designate-his-son-as-the-successor.

Iran analysts believe that Khamenei maintains close ties with the IRGC and wields tremendous influence behind the scenes. He allegedly has influence over the budgets of organizations that answer directly to his father.Hollie McKay, “Is Iran’s Supreme Leader preparing to designate his son as the next in line?,” Fox News, December 7, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/world/is-irans-supreme-leader-preparing-to-designate-his-son-as-the-successor. Khamenei has used his position to influence Iranian affairs to advance his father’s hardline agenda. Former parliamentary speaker Mehdi Karroubi wrote to Ali Khamenei in 2005, and again in 2009, to accuse his son of interfering in Iran’s presidential elections. According to Karroubi, the younger Khamenei had influenced his father and other top IRGC officials to switch their support from Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, a former IRGC air force division commander, to Ahmadinejad.Muhammad Sahimi, “The Man in the Shadow: Mojtaba Khamenei,” PBS, July 16, 2009, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2009/07/the-man-in-the-shadow-mojtaba-khamenei.html. The supreme leader dismissed the accusations and placed Karroubi under house arrest in 2009.Reza Haqiqatnezhad, “Why The US Sanctioned Khamenei’s Son,” Radio Farda, November 8, 2019, https://en.radiofarda.com/a/why-the-us-sanctioned-khamenei-s-son-iran/30260018.html; Hollie McKay, “Is Iran’s Supreme Leader preparing to designate his son as the next in line?,” Fox News, December 7, 2020, https://www.foxnews.com/world/is-irans-supreme-leader-preparing-to-designate-his-son-as-the-successor. In 2009, Khamenei reportedly helped secure Mahmoud Ahmadinejad re-election in Iran’s June 12 presidential elections. When protests spread across Iran to contest the election result, Khamenei allegedly directed the Basij militia to quash the protests, resulting in at least 20 deaths.Julian Borger, “Khamenei’s son takes control of Iran’s anti-protest militia,” Guardian (London), July 8, 2009, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/08/khamenei-son-controls-iran-militia. Protesters reportedly chanted, “Wish you death Mojtaba, so you would never be the next leader!”Reza Haqiqatnezhad, “Why The US Sanctioned Khamenei’s Son,” Radio Farda, November 8, 2019, https://en.radiofarda.com/a/why-the-us-sanctioned-khamenei-s-son-iran/30260018.html.

In early 2012, Ahmadinejad accused Khamenei of embezzling 600,000 euros in government funds. Ahmadinejad made the accusation after a pro-Khamenei faction accused his adviser and chief of staff Esfandiar Rahim Mashaei of embezzling $2 billion. Mashaei is also married to Ahmadinejad’s son. Ahmadinejad reportedly said if Mashaei were to be investigated, Mojtaba Khamenei should be as well.Katerina Nicholas, “Ahmadinejad accuses Ayatollah Khamenei’s son of embezzlement,” Digital Journal, January15, 2012, http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/317922.

On November 4, 2019, the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC) designated Khamenei as a Specially Designated National for “representing the Supreme Leader in an official capacity despite never being elected or appointed to a government position aside from work in the office of his father.”“Treasury Designates Supreme Leader of Iran’s Inner Circle Responsible for Advancing Regime’s Domestic and Foreign Oppression,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 4, 2019, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm824. The Treasury Department accused Khamenei of working closely with Qasem Soleimani, then commander of the Quds Force.“Treasury Designates Supreme Leader of Iran’s Inner Circle Responsible for Advancing Regime’s Domestic and Foreign Oppression,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 4, 2019, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm824. Soleimani died in a January 2020 U.S. airstrike in Iraq.Missy Ryan and Dan Lamothe, “Pentagon launched airstrike that killed Iranian commander Qasem Soleimani, Defense Sec. Mark Esper says,” Washington Post, January 2, 2020, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/defense-secretary-says-iran-and-its-proxies-may-be-planning-fresh-attacks-on-us-personnel-in-iraq/2020/01/02/53b63f00-2d89-11ea-bcb3-ac6482c4a92f_story.html.

On December 5, 2020, Iranian journalist Momahad Ahwaze claimed on Twitter that Ali Khamenei, amid growing health concerns, had transferred authority to Mojtaba Khamenei. According to Ahwaze, Ali Khamenei canceled a December 4 meeting with Iranian President Hassan Rouhani because of his deteriorating health. Ahwaze claimed Ali Khamenei’s conditioned worsened overnight, leading to the transfer of power. He did not state specifics of Ali Khamenei’s illness, but various media reports suggested the supreme leader may have prostate cancer.Darragh Roche, “Journalist Claims Iran’s Supreme Leader Transfers Power to Son as Health Deteriorates,” Newsweek, December 5, 2020, https://www.newsweek.com/fakhrizadeh-iran-1552586. On December 7 on Twitter, Iranian official Mehdi Fazaeli denied rumors of Ali Khamenei’s declining health and claimed that the supreme leader was “busy vigorously carrying out his plan according to his routine.”“Iranian official close to Khamenei's office says leader is in good health – Fars,” Reuters, December 7, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN28H113. If Ali Khamenei dies while still in power, a transfer of authority to his son would be temporary as Iran’s Assembly of Experts is constitutionally charged with selecting the supreme leader’s permanent successor.Yonah Jeremy Bob, “If Iran’s Khamenei must step down, who will replace him?,” Jerusalem Post, December 6, 2020, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/if-irans-khamenei-must-step-down-who-will-replace-him-651279.

Iyad Ag Ghaly is the U.S.- and U.N.-designated Malian leader of Jamaat Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM). Ghaly has aligned himself with al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) and the Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa (MUJAO) brigades that are fighting the French and Malian armed forces in Mali and the surrounding areas of Burkina Faso and Niger.“ANSAR EDDINE,” United Nations Security Council, February 3, 2015, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/ansar-eddine. Ghaly’s notorious legacy has exacerbated the conflict in Mali, making the U.N. peacekeeping mission there the most dangerous in the world.Caleb Weiss, “Malian al Qaeda leader threatens France in audio statement,” Long War Journal, November 1, 2015, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/11/malian-al-qaeda-leader-threatens-france-in-audio-statement.php.

An ethnic Tuareg from northern Mali, Ghaly first gained notoriety during the Tuareg rebellion in the 1990s. In 1991, media sources claimed Ghaly served as secretary-general of the Popular Movement of Azawad. According to BBC News, in 2002, Ghaly spent some time studying at a mosque in Saint Denis, France.Steve Metcalf, “Iyad Ag Ghaly - Mali's Islamist leader,” BBC News, July 17, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18814291.

Ghaly went on to lead a short-lived Tuareg revolt in 2006 called the 23 May Democratic Alliance for Change before joining the Malian High Council of Territorial Collectivities as a member in 2007.Steve Metcalf, “Iyad Ag Ghaly - Mali's Islamist leader,” BBC News, July 17, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18814291.

In August 2003, Ghaly secured the release of 14 tourists kidnapped by the Algerian Salafi Group for Call and Combat (GSPC), a group that eventually became AQIM. Ghaly reportedly negotiated other hostage releases in 2008, 2010, and 2011.Conor Gaffey, “Who is Iyad Ag Ghaly, Mali's Veteran Jihadi?,” Newsweek,  June 29, 2016, https://www.newsweek.com/who-iyad-ag-ghaly-malis-veteran-jihadi-475473; Steve Metcalf, “Iyad Ag Ghaly - Mali's Islamist leader,” BBC News, July 17, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18814291.

From 2008 until 2010, Ghaly served under former Malian President Amadou Toumani Touré as a diplomat at Mali’s consulate in Saudi Arabia. The Kingdom eventually expelled Ghaly for his contacts with extremists within the country.Bruce Riedel, “The New Al Qaeda Menace,” Brookings, August 8, 2012, https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/the-new-al-qaeda-menace/. In his role, Ghaly acted as a hostage negotiator with militant groups, including AQIM, where he cultivated high-level contacts among jihadist groups.Conor Gaffey, “Who is Iyad Ag Ghaly, Mali's Veteran Jihadi?,” Newsweek,  June 29, 2016, https://www.newsweek.com/who-iyad-ag-ghaly-malis-veteran-jihadi-475473; Steve Metcalf, “Iyad Ag Ghaly - Mali's Islamist leader,” BBC News, July 17, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18814291.

Ghaly founded Ansar al-Dine (AAD) in December 2011, after AQIM leader Abdelmalek Droukdel sought to expand AQIM activities into the Sahel, specifically in northern Mali.“IYAD AG GHALI,” United Nations Security Council, February 25, 2013, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/iyad-ag-ghali. Given Ghaly’s reputation among jihadist circles, he was suggested by a number of AQIM officials as the leader of the new group. Upon the formation of AAD, AQIM provided continued military, financial, and logistical support to the insurgency to counter the Malian Armed Forces. AAD quickly proved formidable as it captured a number of towns, including Tessalit and Timbuktu, from January 2012 until April 2012.“IYAD AG GHALI,” United Nations Security Council, February 25, 2013, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/iyad-ag-ghali.

Beginning in January 2012, the Tuareg separatists launched a rebellion—bolstered by jihadist forces—in northern Mali which has triggered a brutal conflict in the region, spreading to the neighboring countries of Burkina Faso and Niger.“Three prominent jihadists dominate Sahel after death of al Qaeda leader,” France 24, June 8, 2020, https://www.france24.com/en/20200608-sahel-jihad-africa-al-qaeda-is-group. In November 2012, AAD formalized their alignment with MUJAO and AQIM, setting up offices in the north of Gao and defining a common strategy.“Three prominent jihadists dominate Sahel after death of al Qaeda leader,” France 24, June 8, 2020, https://www.france24.com/en/20200608-sahel-jihad-africa-al-qaeda-is-group. The strategy involved taking over northern Mali, destroying UNESCO World Heritage sites, and enforcing a severe interpretation of sharia law upon the civilian population living in the areas under its control.“Country Reports on Terrorism 2019,” U.S. Department of State, https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/#AAD. According to the U.S. Department of State, AAD militants harassed, tortured, or executed Malian citizens who did not comply with AAD’s orders.“Terrorist Designations of Iyad ag Ghali,” U.S. Department of State, Febraury 26, 2013, https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/02/205196.htm.

On February 25, 2013, the United Nations Security Council designated Ghaly for his association with al-Qaeda.“IYAD AG GHALI,” United Nations Security Council, February 25, 2013, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/iyad-ag-ghali. A day later, Ghaly was listed by the U.S. Department of State as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist for providing support to terrorists and for perpetuating acts of terrorism.“Terrorist Designations of Iyad ag Ghali,” U.S. Department of State, February 26, 2013, https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2013/02/205196.htm. A month later, on March 22, 2013, AAD was designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization by the State Department.“Country Reports on Terrorism 2019,” U.S. Department of State, https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/#AAD.

Beginning in January 2013, French and allied African forces conducted operations in northern Mali to counter AAD and other terrorist groups, eventually forcing AAD and its allies out of the towns that they previously seized. Ghaly, however, remained elusive to security forces. Ghaly later released statements on November 1, 2015 and again in 2016 where he threatened France and the U.N. Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA).“Country Reports on Terrorism 2019,” U.S. Department of State, https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/#AAD. In his 2015 statement, which was released on AQIM’s Twitter page, Ghaly called on all people in Mali to join the jihad against the French and to reject any peace deal in Mali.Caleb Weiss, “Malian al Qaeda leader threatens France in audio statement,” Long War Journal, November 1, 2015, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/11/malian-al-qaeda-leader-threatens-france-in-audio-statement.php.

On March 2, 2017, the Sahara Branch of AQIM, AAD, al-Murabitoun, and the Macina Liberation Front joined together to form JNIM. Ghaly was announced as the leader, and he affirmed his allegiance to Abdelmalek Droukdel, the emir of AQIM; Ayman al-Zawahiri, al-Qaeda’s emir; and Haibatullah Akhundzada, the Taliban’s overall leader.Thomas Joscelyn and Caleb Weiss, “Analysis: Islamic State claims Al Qaeda started a war in West Africa,” Long War Journal, May 8, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/05/analysis-islamic-state-claims-al-qaeda-started-a-war-in-west-africa.php; “Country Reports on Terrorism 2019,” U.S. Department of State, https://www.state.gov/reports/country-reports-on-terrorism-2019/#AAD; Hauke Waszkewitz, “Jihadism’s staying power in North Africa,” Global Risk Insights, March 20, 2018, https://globalriskinsights.com/2018/03/aqim-staying-power-north-africa-al-qaeda/. In his role as JNIM emir, Ghaly stated in an April 3, 2017 interview with al-Qaeda’s weekly al-Massar publication that France was his “historic enemy” as it threatened al-Qaeda and its allies as “agents who occupy our lands, attack our religion, and steal our wealth.”Malek Bachir, “France is our first enemy, says 'emir' of new al-Qaeda affiliate,” April 7, 2017, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/france-our-first-enemy-says-emir-new-al-qaeda-affiliate.

JNIM released a statement March 12, 2020, claiming the group would be willing to engage in dialogue with the Malian government, on the condition that French troops and the U.N. peacekeeping mission withdraw from the country. The statement came after a February 2020 announcement by former Malian President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, who claimed he had sent his high representative, Dioncounda Traoré, to central Mali to initiate communication—in the hopes of achieving a ceasefire—with jihadist groups. The militants Traoré spoke to allegedly included Ghaly and Amadou Kouffa.Zeenat Hansrod, “Mali’s jihadists demand French withdrawal as condition for talks,” RFI, March 12, 2020, https://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20200312-mali-jihadists-demand-france-withdrawal-as-conditions-for-dialogue-anti-french-sentiment-ibk; Sirwan Kajjo and Salem Solomon, “Mali Seeks to Negotiate with Jihadists in Efforts to End Violence,” Voice of America, February 23, 2020, https://www.voanews.com/extremism-watch/mali-seeks-negotiate-jihadists-efforts-end-violence. On October 26, 2020, Mali’s interim prime minister, Moctar Ouane, who was appointed in August 2020 after Keita was ousted from power, claimed his government was prepared to pursue talks with Islamist militants. However, French Foreign Minister Jean-Yves Le Drian, opposed the idea as the groups have yet to sign a 2015 peace deal that aimed to restore peace in northern Mali.“Mali and France at odds over talks with Islamist militants,” Reuters, October 26, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mali-security-france-idUSKBN27B1NA.

Media sources reported on May 8, 2020, that in ISIS’s May 7, 2020 edition of its weekly al-Naba newspaper, that al-Qaeda started a “war” against ISIS militants in West Africa. Al-Naba criticized JNIM’s leadership, specifically Ghaly and Kouffa, as undermining the jihad in favor of negotiating with the Malian government. JNIM sought to diffuse the tension by releasing booklets—indirectly targeted at ISIS sympathizers who are skeptical of JNIM’s motives—by calling for unity among all jihadists.Thomas Joscelyn and Caleb Weiss, “Analysis: Islamic State claims Al Qaeda started a war in West Africa,” Long War Journal, May 8, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/05/analysis-islamic-state-claims-al-qaeda-started-a-war-in-west-africa.php; Caleb Weiss, “Analysis: JNIM addresses detractors, sends message of unity,” Long War Journal, February 10, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/02/analysis-jnim-addresses-detractors-sends-message-of-unity.php; Mina Al-Lami, “Africa's Sahel becomes latest al-Qaeda-IS battleground,” BBC News, May 11, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-52614579.

On February 3, 2021, Bernard Emie, the head of French foreign intelligence, announced that al-Qaeda in the Sahel was reportedly seeking to expand its operations towards the Gulf of Guinea, particularly Cote d’Ivoire and Benin. Emie revealed that Abdelmalek Droukdel, Ghaly, and Amadou Koufa—the leaders of AQIM, JNIM, and Katibat Macina, respectively—held a meeting in central Mali in February 2020 in which they discussed preparing large-scale operations. Droukdel was eliminated in a French-led airstrike and ground operation in June 2020.“Al-Qaeda North Africa chief killed: What next for the region?,” France 24, June 6, 2020, https://www.france24.com/en/20200606-al-qaeda-north-africa-chief-killed-what-next-for-the-region. However, French authorities believe Ghaly is now the head of operations for al-Qaeda in the Sahel.“Al Qaeda’s “Expansion Project” targets Côte d’Ivoire, Benin,” North Africa Post, February 3, 2021, https://northafricapost.com/47331-al-qaedas-expansion-project-targets-cote-divoire-benin.html. Given the Sahel’s importance in expanding al-Qaeda’s current operations, it is suspected by regional scholars that Ghaly may now be within al-Qaeda’s “senior leadership.”Caleb Weiss, “Analysis: JNIM celebrates prisoner swap in Mali,” Long War Journal, October 12, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/10/analysis-jnim-celebrates-prisoner-swap-in-mali.php.

As of 2022, JNIM and AQIM continue to threaten the stability of Mali and the Sahel region. Given France’s ongoing military withdrawal from Mali as well as Mali’s March 2022 withdrawal from the G5 Sahel—a West African military force that fights terrorists in the region—Bamako must drastically fill a security vacuum to effectively counter the growing threat of terror groups.Edith M. Lederer, “UN: Mali pullout from counterterrorism force `unfortunate’,” May 18, 2022, https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-politics-niger-united-nations-africa-3ce881d81189212b54aab2954b352206; Norimitsu Onishi, Ruth Maclean and Aurelien Breeden, “France Announces Troop Withdrawal From Mali After 9-Year Campaign,” New York Times, February 17, 2022, https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/17/world/africa/mali-france-withdrawal.html. Following the death of al-Qaeda emir Ayman al-Zawahiri in a U.S. drone strike on July 31, 2022, al-Qaeda scholars have determined that the operational capacity of JNIM and AQIM will remain unaffected as the jihadist groups in the region continue to expand and carry out attacks.“The death of al-Zawahiri will not significantly destabilize the action of AQIM,” RFI France, August 3, 2022, https://www.rfi.fr/fr/podcasts/invit%C3%A9-afrique/20220803-la-mort-d-al-zawahiri-ne-d%C3%A9stabilisera-pas-significativement-l-action-d-aqmi; Kevin Liptak, Kylie Atwood, Natasha Bertrand, Maegan Vazquez, Donald Judd and Nick Paton Walsh, “US kills al Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri in drone strike in Afghanistan,” CNN, August 2, 2022, https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/01/politics/joe-biden-counter-terrorism/index.html. As of May 2022, JNIM has expanded their geographical operations as they have threatened not only Mali, but northern parts of coastal Benin, Ivory Coast, Ghana, and Togo.“Al-Qaida Affiliate Claims May Attack in Togo,” Agence France Presse, June 3, 2022, https://www.voanews.com/a/al-qaida-affiliate-claims-may-attack-in-togo-/6602469.html.

According to Agence France-Presse, Ghaly was involved in secret talks with armed groups in northern Mali in January 2023. Reportedly, JNIM and the armed groups met to discuss the increasing number of attacks carried out by Islamic State Sahel province (IS Sahel) and potential collaboration between the two sides. According to Ghaly, it was important to unite the “sons of the Kidal region.”Agence France-Presse, “Mali Jihadist Leader in Secret Talks With Northern Groups,” Voice of America, January 31, 2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/mali-jihadist-leader-in-secret-talks-with-northern-groups/6942094.html. The Kidal region is not under direct control of the Malian state, but instead defers to the Coordination of Azawad Movements (CMA), a coalition of predominantly Tuareg ethnic groups. As of March 2024, further details on JNIM’s collaboration with northern armed groups have been unreported.Agence France-Presse, “Mali Jihadist Leader in Secret Talks With Northern Groups,” Voice of America, January 31, 2023, https://www.voanews.com/a/mali-jihadist-leader-in-secret-talks-with-northern-groups/6942094.html.

On December 13, 2023, Ghaly made a rare video appearance to condemn the junta governments of Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger, and their Russian allies. In the video, Ghaly urged Muslims to support JNIM fighters against these “treacherous governments.”Agence France-Presse, “Regional Jihadist Leader Criticises W.Africa Military Regimes,” Barron’s, December 13, 2023, https://www.barrons.com/news/regional-jihadist-leader-criticises-w-africa-military-regimes-917ce0c8. Throughout the video, Ghaly attempted to present himself as the defender of vulnerable civilians subjected to the indiscriminate violence that has been reported at the hands of national forces and Russian paramilitary groups deployed across the Sahel. He further stated that the “Islamic cause is totally incompatible with [the Malian government’s] project.”Agence France-Presse, “Regional Jihadist Leader Criticises W.Africa Military Regimes,” Barron’s, December 13, 2023, https://www.barrons.com/news/regional-jihadist-leader-criticises-w-africa-military-regimes-917ce0c8.