Abdul-Haq Wassiq is a U.N.-sanctioned Taliban senior leader who served as the deputy director general of intelligence during the Talian’s first takeover of Afghanistan from 1996 until 2001. Wassiq was in charge of directing domestic investigations, overseeing all of the Taliban’s activities in Kabul as they related to Osama bin Laden, maintaining relations with al-Qaeda-affiliated foreign fighters, and overseeing al-Qaeda’s training camps.“Narrative Summaries of Reasons for Listing: TAi.082ABDUL-HAQ WASSIQ,” U.N. Security Council, January 31, 2001, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1988/materials/summaries/individual/abdul-haq-wassiq;
“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, 2, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. Wassiq was captured by U.S. forces in November 2001 and detained in the U.S. Guantanamo Bay detention center from January 2002 to May 2014.“Narrative Summaries of Reasons for Listing: TAi.082ABDUL-HAQ WASSIQ,” U.N. Security Council, January 31, 2001, 3, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1988/materials/summaries/individual/abdul-haq-wassiq. He was one of five Taliban senior leaders transferred to Qatar as part of the Qatar-mediated exchange for captive U.S. Sgt. Bowe Bergdahl.“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. Following the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan’s government on August 15, 2021, Wassiq was named the intelligence chief of the Taliban government on September 7.Douglas Schorzman, “Who Are the Taliban’s New Government Leaders? Here’s What We Know,” New York Times, September 7, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/article/taliban-leaders-afghanistan.html?action=click&module=RelatedLinks&pgtype=Article.

According to a December 2015 report by the Committee on Armed Services, Wassiq had “many contacts with other high ranking Taliban officials,” including former Taliban emir (leader) Mullah Omar.“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, 2, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. The U.S. National Intelligence Council said that Wassiq has not historically wielded considerable influence in the Taliban but was nonetheless considered a “capable and trusted Taliban official.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, 2, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf.

On May 31, 2014, Wassiq was transferred from the U.S. detention center in Guantanamo Bay to Qatar alongside four other Taliban detainees. The move came as part of a negotiated exchange for the release of U.S. captive soldier Sgt. Bowe Bergdahl. At the time of the their transfer, the so-called Taliban Five—including Wassiq—were considered to be sufficiently dangerous as to require them to remain in detention.“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. Although the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the United States and Qatar was classified regarding the terms for Taliban detainees released to Qatar, the U.S. Armed Forces Committee was able to note that the MOU specified “monitoring” efforts to be undertaken by Qatar, as well as the prohibition against detainees’ “travel outside Qatar,” “engaging in conduct that will raise money for prohibited causes,” and “threatening American interests.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, 76, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf.

The U.S. Committee on Armed Services determined in December 2015 that members of the Taliban Five have been engaged in “threatening activities” since their transfer to Qatar “not unlike their activities before they were detained on the battlefield.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. In January 2015, the U.S. Pentagon said that there was reason to believe that “at least one” member of the Taliban Five was involved in “some activities… centered around potential reengagement.” In March 2015, a news outlet reported that “at least three of the five Taliban leaders… have tried to plug back into their old terror networks.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, 75, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf.

As of 2015, Taliban leaders were reportedly living in an exclusive neighborhood in suburban Doha, receiving luxury SUVs, free medical care, air-conditioned homes “the size of small castles,” and fresh produce delivered daily to their homes, according to a report by Newsweek journalist Sami Yousafzai.Sami Yousafzai, “Taliban Leaders Are Living in Luxury in Qatar,” Newsweek, March 24, 2015, http://www.newsweek.com/2015/04/03/taliban-leaders-are-living-luxury-qatar-316122.html.

In 2019, the Taliban began peace negotiations with the U.S. and Afghan government in order to end the 17 year-long war. Crucial issues included the withdrawal of American troops, and a commitment that Afghan soil would not again be used to launch terrorist attacks against the United States and its allies. Wassiq, along with four other past Guantanamo detainees, was part of the Taliban negotiating team discussing the terms of American troop withdrawal from Afghanistan.Mujib Mashal, “Once jailed in Guantanamo, 5 Taliban Now Face U.S. at Peace Talks,” New York Times, March 26, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/26/world/asia/taliban-guantanamo-afghanistan-peace-talks.html.

On August 6, 2021, the Taliban began an offensive against major Afghan cities with the seizure of Zaranj, capital of Nimruz province.Susannah George and Ezzatullah Mehrdad, “Taliban fighters overrun an Afghan provincial capital for the first time since withdrawal of foreign forces,” Washington Post, August 6, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/08/06/afghanistan-taliban-nimruz/. By August 13, the Taliban controlled 17 of Afghanistan’s 34 provincial capitals and more than two-thirds of the country.Rahim Faiez, and Joseph Krauss, “Taliban sweep across Afghanistan’s south; take 4 more cities,” Associated Press, August 13, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-taliban-c6c8d4a41c554f36031a8131538d1402. On August 15, Afghan President Ashraf Ghani fled Afghanistan and thousands of Afghans poured into Kabul’s airport as Taliban fighters entered the city. By August 16, the Taliban laid siege to the presidential palace and took complete control of Kabul, after which the Taliban declared the war in Afghanistan had ended.“Taliban declares ‘war is over’ as president and diplomats flee Kabul,” Reuters, August 15, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/talibans-rapid-advance-across-afghanistan-2021-08-10/. The Taliban has claimed that it would take on a more “moderate” approach in their ruling of the country, and that women are allowed to have roles in public life in observance of “Islamic law.”“Factbox: Taliban seek to present a moderate face as they take control in Afghanistan,” Reuters, August 15, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-seek-present-moderate-face-they-take-control-afghanistan-2021-08-15/.

On September 7, 2021, the Taliban announced the official appointments within their caretaker government. Wassiq was named intelligence chief. The government is exclusively male, with many positions filled with veterans from their hardline movement in the early nineties.Matthieu Aikins and Jim Huylebroek, “Taliban Appoint Stalwarts to Top Government Posts,” New York Times, September 7, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/07/world/asia/taliban-women-protest-kabul-afghanistan.html; Kathy Gannon, “Taliban form all-male Afghan government of old guard members,” Associated Press, September 8, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-pakistan-afghanistan-arrests-islamabad-d50b1b490d27d32eb20cc11b77c12c87.

Khairullah Khairkhwa is a U.N.-sanctioned senior Taliban leader who served as governor of the Taliban-run Herat Province prior to the 9/11 attacks. Herat province is where former al-Qaeda in Iraq leader Abu Musab al-Zarqawi ran a training camp.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 2, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. Khairkhwa was arrested by Pakistani border patrol officials in February 2002 and detained in the U.S. Guantanamo Bay detention center from May 2002 to May 2014.“S E C R E T / / NOFORN / / 20330223,” U.S. Department of Defense, February 23, 2008, http://media.miamiherald.com/static/images/escenic-images/gitmopdfs/us9af-000007dp.pdf. He was one of five Taliban senior leaders transferred to Qatar as part of the Qatar-mediated exchange for captive U.S. Sgt. Bowe Bergdahl.“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. Following the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in August 2021, Khairkhwa was named minister of information and broadcasting of the Taliban government on September 7.“Taliban forms 33-member cabinet in Afghanistan: Full list,” Hindustan Times, September 8, 2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/taliban-forms-33-member-cabinet-in-afghanistan-full-list-101631066722518.html.

According to documents from Guantanamo, Khairkhwa was “directly associated” with former al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden and former Taliban leader Mohammed Omar. The U.S. House Committee on Armed Forces has also noted that Khairkhwa is closely acquainted with current al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri.“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf.

Khairkhwa has served in a variety of roles for the Taliban in Afghanistan. He served as a spokesperson for the Taliban government from 1995 to 1996, as the Taliban’s Minister of Interior from 1996 to late October 1999, and as the governor of Herat Province from late October 1999 to December 2001.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 2, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. After the September 11 attacks in 2001, Khairkhwa represented the Taliban in meetings with Iranian officials in an effort to rally support against U.S. and coalition forces in Afghanistan. A 2008 assessment from the Joint Task Force at Guantanamo (JTF-GTMO) further suggests that Khairkhwa was a former drug trafficker who had previously been “one of the major opium drug lords in Western Afghanistan.”“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 1-2, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. Khairkhwa is also allegedly an acquaintance and “long-time family friend” of former Afghan President Hamid Karzai.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 3-5, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11.

Prior to taking up with the Taliban in Afghanistan, Khairkhwa had spent time as a refugee in Pakistan, according to records from Guantanamo. Records indicate that Khairkhwa was previously the leader of his tribe, the Popalzai. While serving as the Taliban’s governor of Herat Province from 1999 to 2001, Khairkhwa’s deputy was allegedly responsible for all Arab and military affairs in that province. Khairkhwa denied knowledge of any militant activities in Herat Province during his tenure as governor, including training camps, recruitment, and weapons procurement.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 2-3, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. Nonetheless, Khairkhwa allegedly met with Mullah Omar twice while serving as governor of Herat Province, including one occasion where he allegedly discussed militant recruitment strategies in Herat.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 3, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. Khairkhwa also allegedly controlled access to and from a militant base in Herat Province, described by the JTF as “one of UBL [Osama bin Laden’s] most important bases” in Herat.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 6-7, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11.

On October 3, 2001, Khairkhwa traveled with three other Taliban representatives to the Afghan-Iranian border to meet with Iranian officials.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 3, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. According to findings by the JTF, the meeting was set up by Tehran and may even have been set up by Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) in particular. During the meeting, Iranian officials allegedly offered to organize a coalition of Northern Alliance and Taliban fighters to counter U.S. and coalition forces in Afghanistan. Iran also allegedly offered to allow foreign fighters to travel through Iran into Afghanistan to join the fight against U.S. forces there.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 3, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11.

In January 2002, Khairkhwa claims to have traveled to Chaman, Pakistan, and contacted Wali Karzai, brother of former Afghan President Hamid Karzai, to negotiate his surrender to U.S. and coalition forces.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 3, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. The following month, Khairkhwa was arrested by Pakistani border patrol officials while at the home of another Taliban official. After more than two weeks in Pakistani custody, Khairkhwa was transferred to U.S. custody in Quetta.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 3-4, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. On May 1, 2002, Khairkhwa was transferred to Guantanamo.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 4, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11.

Khairkhwa spent 12 years in Guantanamo, and was repeatedly assessed to be an enemy combatant, posing a high risk to the United States, its allies, and interests. In 2008, the JTF recommended Khairkhwa for continued detention under supervision of the U.S. Department of Defense.“JTF-GTMO Assessment,” New York Times Guantanamo Docket, March 6, 2008, 1, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/579-khirullah-said-wali-khairkhwa/documents/11. On May 31, 2014, however, Khairkhwa was transferred from the U.S. detention center in Guantanamo Bay to Qatar alongside four other Taliban detainees. The move came as part of a negotiated exchange for the release of U.S. captive soldier Sgt. Bowe Bergdahl.

At the time of the their transfer, the so-called Taliban Five—including Khairkhwa—were considered to be sufficiently dangerous as to require them to remain in detention.“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. As of June 2013, Khairkhwa was considered to be “the least likely of the five to become involved in military operations” if able to reengage, but would probably “remain a Taliban political leader.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. Although the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the United States and Qatar was classified regarding the terms for Taliban detainees released to Qatar, the U.S. House Committee on Armed Forces was able to note that the MOU specified “monitoring” efforts to be undertaken by Qatar, as well as the prohibition against detainees’ “travel outside Qatar,” “engaging in conduct that will raise money for prohibited causes,” and “threatening American interests.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, 76, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf.

The U.S. House Committee on Armed Forces determined in December 2015 that members of the Taliban Five have been engaged in “threatening activities” since their transfer to Qatar “not unlike their activities before they were detained on the battlefield.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf. In January 2015, the U.S. Pentagon said that there was reason to believe that “at least one” member of the Taliban Five was involved in “some activities… centered around potential reengagement.” In March 2015, a news outlet reported that “at least three of the five Taliban leaders… have tried to plug back into their old terror networks.”“Report on the Inquiry into: The Department of Defense’s May 2014 Transfer to Qatar of five law-of-war detainees in connection with the recovery of a captive U.S. soldier,” Committee on Armed Services, December 9, 2015, 75, https://armedservices.house.gov/sites/republicans.armedservices.house.gov/files/wysiwyg_uploaded/Report%20on%20the%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20Taliban%20Five%20Transfer_0.pdf.

As of 2015, Taliban leaders were reportedly living in an exclusive neighborhood in suburban Doha, receiving luxury SUVs, free medical care, air-conditioned homes “the size of small castles,” and fresh produce delivered daily to their homes, according to a report by Newsweek journalist Sami Yousafzai.Sami Yousafzai, “Taliban Leaders Are Living in Luxury in Qatar,” Newsweek, March 24, 2015, http://www.newsweek.com/2015/04/03/taliban-leaders-are-living-luxury-qatar-316122.html.

In 2019, the Taliban began peace negotiations with the U.S. and Afghan governments. Crucial issues included the withdrawal of American troops from Afghanistan, and a commitment that the Taliban would start negotiations with the Afghan government as well as agree to a ceasefire and renounce all its ties to al-Qaeda. Khairkhwa, along with four other former Guantanamo detainees, was part of the Taliban negotiating team.Mujib Mashal, “Once jailed in Guantanamo, 5 Taliban Now Face U.S. at Peace Talks,” New York Times, March 26, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/26/world/asia/taliban-guantanamo-afghanistan-peace-talks.html.

On August 6, 2021, the Taliban began an offensive against major Afghan cities with the seizure of Zaranj, capital of Nimruz province.Susannah George and Ezzatullah Mehrdad, “Taliban fighters overrun an Afghan provincial capital for the first time since withdrawal of foreign forces,” Washington Post, August 6, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/08/06/afghanistan-taliban-nimruz/. By August 13, the Taliban controlled 17 of Afghanistan’s 34 provincial capitals and more than two-thirds of the country.Rahim Faiez, and Joseph Krauss, “Taliban sweep across Afghanistan’s south; take 4 more cities,” Associated Press, August 13, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-taliban-c6c8d4a41c554f36031a8131538d1402. On August 15, Afghan President Ashraf Ghani fled Afghanistan and thousands of Afghans poured into Kabul’s airport as Taliban fighters entered the city. By August 16, the Taliban laid siege to the presidential palace and took complete control of Kabul, after which the Taliban declared the war in Afghanistan had ended.“Taliban declares ‘war is over’ as president and diplomats flee Kabul,” Reuters, August 15, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/talibans-rapid-advance-across-afghanistan-2021-08-10/. The Taliban has claimed that it would take on a more “moderate” approach in their ruling of the country, and that women are allowed to have roles in public life in observance of “Islamic law.”“Factbox: Taliban seek to present a moderate face as they take control in Afghanistan,” Reuters, August 15, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-seek-present-moderate-face-they-take-control-afghanistan-2021-08-15/.

On September 7, 2021, the Taliban announced the official appointments within their caretaker government. Khairkhwa was appointed minister of information and broadcasting of the Taliban government.“Taliban forms 33-member cabinet in Afghanistan: Full list,” Hindustan Times, September 8, 2021, https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/taliban-forms-33-member-cabinet-in-afghanistan-full-list-101631066722518.html. The government is exclusively male, with many positions filled with veterans from their hardline movement in the early nineties.Matthieu Aikins and Jim Huylebroek, “Taliban Appoint Stalwarts to Top Government Posts,” New York Times, September 7, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/07/world/asia/taliban-women-protest-kabul-afghanistan.html; Kathy Gannon, “Taliban form all-male Afghan government of old guard members,” Associated Press, September 8, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-pakistan-afghanistan-arrests-islamabad-d50b1b490d27d32eb20cc11b77c12c87.

Din Mohammad Hanif is a U.N.-sanctioned Taliban senior leader who previously served as the Minister of Higher Education and the Master of Planning under the Taliban regime of the 1990s.“Security Council 1988 Committee Amends 105 Entries on Its Sanctions List,” U.N. Security Council, November 29, 2011, https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10465.doc.htm. According to the United Nations, Hanif also served as a member of the Taliban Supreme Council responsible for Takhar province and his home province of Badakhshan.“Security Council 1988 Committee Amends 105 Entries on Its Sanctions List,” U.N. Security Council, November 29, 2011, https://www.un.org/press/en/2011/sc10465.doc.htm. He is an ethnic Tajik.“How Qatar came to host the Taliban,” BBC News, June 22, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23007401. Following the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan on August 15, 2021, Hanif was named the economy minister of the Taliban government on September 7.Douglas Schorzman, “Who Are the Taliban’s New Government Leaders? Here’s What We Know,” New York Times, September 7, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/article/taliban-leaders-afghanistan.html?action=click&module=RelatedLinks&pgtype=Article; “Factbox: Taliban announces makeup of new Afghan government,” Reuters, September 7, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-announces-makeup-new-afghan-government-2021-09-07/.

In early 2015, the Taliban announced that it was willing to enter into peace talks geared toward ending the conflict in Afghanistan. According to Taliban commanders and senior Pakistani officials, Hanif led a delegation of the Taliban’s political office in Qatar.Jibran Ahmad, Mehreen Zahra-Malik, “Pakistan expose obstacles to Afghan peace talks,” Reuters, March 12, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-taliban-talks-idUSKBN0M81A720150312. The Taliban delegation met in Islamabad, Pakistan, with Pakistani army leaders and Chinese diplomats. According to a Taliban commander, Hanif briefed them on the meeting, in which Pakistani officials called on the Taliban to smooth a rift between two top leaders, Akhtar Mohammad Mansour and Abdul Qayum Zakir.Jibran Ahmad, Mehreen Zahra-Malik, “Pakistan expose obstacles to Afghan peace talks,” Reuters, March 12, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-taliban-talks-idUSKBN0M81A720150312.

In June 2015, Hanif and another Taliban official traveled to Oslo, Norway, at the same time as Afghan officials. Despite speculation that the two sides were meeting to negotiate, the Taliban issued a statement denying that its officials met with Afghan government officials there.Mushtaq Yusufzai and Fazul Rahim, “Taliban Talks: Militants Say They’ll Meet Afghan Offficials in Norway,” NBC, June 16, 2015, http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/taliban-talks-militants-meet-afghan-government-representatives-norway-n375421.

On August 6, 2021, the Taliban began an offensive against major Afghan cities with the seizure of Zaranj, capital of Nimruz province.Susannah George and Ezzatullah Mehrdad, “Taliban fighters overrun an Afghan provincial capital for the first time since withdrawal of foreign forces,” Washington Post, August 6, 2021, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/08/06/afghanistan-taliban-nimruz/. By August 13, the Taliban controlled 17 of Afghanistan’s 34 provincial capitals and more than two-thirds of the country.Rahim Faiez, and Joseph Krauss, “Taliban sweep across Afghanistan’s south; take 4 more cities,” Associated Press, August 13, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-taliban-c6c8d4a41c554f36031a8131538d1402. On August 15, Afghan President Ashraf Ghani fled Afghanistan and thousands of Afghans poured into Kabul’s airport as Taliban fighters entered the city. By August 16, the Taliban laid siege to the presidential palace and took complete control of Kabul, after which the Taliban declared the war in Afghanistan had ended.“Taliban declares ‘war is over’ as president and diplomats flee Kabul,” Reuters, August 15, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/talibans-rapid-advance-across-afghanistan-2021-08-10/. The Taliban has claimed that it would take on a more “moderate” approach in their ruling of the country, and that women are allowed to have roles in public life in observance of “Islamic law.”“Factbox: Taliban seek to present a moderate face as they take control in Afghanistan,” Reuters, August 15, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-seek-present-moderate-face-they-take-control-afghanistan-2021-08-15/.

On September 7, 2021, the Taliban announced the official appointments within their caretaker government. Hanif was named economy minister. The government is exclusively male, with many positions filled with veterans from their hardline movement in the early nineties.Matthieu Aikins and Jim Huylebroek, “Taliban Appoint Stalwarts to Top Government Posts,” New York Times, September 7, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/09/07/world/asia/taliban-women-protest-kabul-afghanistan.html; Kathy Gannon, “Taliban form all-male Afghan government of old guard members,” Associated Press, September 8, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-pakistan-afghanistan-arrests-islamabad-d50b1b490d27d32eb20cc11b77c12c87; “Factbox: Taliban announces makeup of new Afghan government,” Reuters, September 7, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/taliban-announces-makeup-new-afghan-government-2021-09-07/.

Shahabuddin Delawar is a U.N.-sanctioned Taliban senior leader based in Qatar. Until September 1998, Delawar was the Taliban’s ambassador to Saudi Arabia.“Security Council Committee Established Pursuant to Resolution 1988 (2011),” United Nations Security Council, February 23, 2001, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1988/materials/summaries/individual/shahabuddin-delawar. He has since led or participated in several Taliban delegations in other countries. Delawar is also sanctioned by Australia,“The Consolidated List,” Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade for Australia, June 20, 2017, http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/security/sanctions/pages/consolidated-list.aspx#list. France,“Liste Unique de Gels,” French Ministry of the Economy, accessed June 21, 2017, http://www.tresor.economie.gouv.fr/11448_liste-unique-de-gels. the European Union,“Council Implementing Decision 2012/167/CFSP,” Council of the European Union, March 24, 2012, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=celex%3A32012D0167. and the United Kingdom.“Consolidated List of Financial Sanctions Targets in the UK,” Government of the United Kingdom, April 12, 2017, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/608393/afghanistan.pdf.

Delawar was the Taliban’s chief delegate during talks in Chantilly, France, in December 2012. According to an anonymous source present at the talks, “Delawar was surprised that everyone else was talking about coalitions and elections… They [the Taliban] still think they can win on the battlefield.”Ali M. Latifi, “Taliban talks in Doha drag on endlessly,” February 26, 2013, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/02/201322121225350352.html. At the same meeting, Delawar reiterated that the Taliban would not negotiate with the official government of Afghanistan under then-President Hamid Karzai.

Delawar has continued to act as a Taliban envoy since moving to Qatar, helping to set up the Taliban’s office in Doha. In April 2016, Delawar took part in a three-person Taliban delegation in Islamabad for “exploratory” meetings with Pakistani government authorities.Ayaz Gul, “Afghan Taliban Negotiators Arrive in Pakistan for Initial Talks,” Voice of America, April 25, 2016, https://www.voanews.com/a/afghan-taliban-negotiators-pakistan-initial-talks/3302105.html. In March 2017, Delawar was part of a five-person Taliban team led by Qatar office chief Sher Abbas Stanikazai that visited China on the invitation of the Chinese government.Tahir Khan, “Afghan Taliban political negotiators visit China,” Express Tribune (Karachi), March 7, 2017, https://tribune.com.pk/story/1348055/afghan-talibans-political-negotiators-visit-china/.

Like many other Taliban leaders, Delawar has found sanctuary in Qatar. As of 2015, Taliban leaders were reportedly living in an exclusive neighborhood in suburban Doha, receiving luxury SUVs, free medical care, air-conditioned homes “the size of small castles,” and fresh produce delivered daily to their homes, according to a report by Newsweek journalist Sami Yousafzai.Sami Yousafzai, “Taliban Leaders Are Living in Luxury in Qatar,” Newsweek, March 24, 2015, http://www.newsweek.com/2015/04/03/taliban-leaders-are-living-luxury-qatar-316122.html.

Delawar attended the signing of the February 2020 agreement between the Taliban and the United States in Qatar. Intra-Afghan negotiations were scheduled to take place ten days later.Andrew Watkins, “Intra-Afghan Negotiations Set to Begin,” International Crisis Group, September 11, 2020, https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/intra-afghan-negotiations-set-begin. However, negotiations were delayed because the Taliban did not reduce its violent attacks nor released government captives, according to the Afghan government.Andrew Watkins, “Intra-Afghan Negotiations Set to Begin,”, International Crisis Group, September 11, 2020, https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/afghanistan/intra-afghan-negotiations-set-begin. However, Delawar blamed the Afghan government for these delays, stating that the government should have released “our 5,000 [prisoners] by March 15. We were ready to release their prisoners in 10 days.”Gulabudin Ghubar, “Taliban Blames Govt for Delay in Peace Talks,” TOLOnews, July 19, 2020, https://tolonews.com/afghanistan/taliban-blames-govt-delay-peace-talks.

Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen and co-founder and leader of al-Qaeda, notorious for orchestrating the September 11, 2001, attacks that killed nearly 3,000 people. Throughout his three-decade-long jihadist career, bin Laden oversaw the planning of numerous largescale terrorist attacks, established a network of al-Qaeda-linked businesses and operatives, and united terrorist groups from the Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia. Between 1996 and 2001, he lived in Afghanistan under the protection of the ruling Taliban and its leader Mullah Mohammed Omar. Bin Laden was killed on May 2, 2011, in a shootout with U.S. Navy SEALS at a compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. Bin Laden was succeeded as al-Qaeda's emir by Ayman al-Zawahiri.“TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html;
Peter Baker, Helene Cooper, Mark Mazzetti, “Bin Laden Is Dead, Obama Says,” New York Times, May 1, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

Born in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, in 1957, Osama bin Laden was the 17^th of 54 children fathered by Saudi billionaire Mohammed bin Laden. The elder bin Laden, an immigrant from Yemen, was the head of a successful construction firm—building many of the palaces and major roads in the kingdom as well as renovating Jerusalem’s Al Aqsa Mosque. Osama’s mother, Hamida al-Attas, came from a prominent Syrian Alawite family and was Mohammed bin Laden’s tenth wife. Osama’s parents divorced soon after he was born, and his father died in a plane crash when he was five years old. Nevertheless, Osama would later work for and inherit millions from his father’s business empire.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 75, 84; Victory D. Comras, Flawed Diplomacy: The United Nations & the War on Terrorism, (Washington D.C.: Potomac Books, Inc., 2010), 36.

In high school bin Laden joined the Saudi branch of the Muslim Brotherhood and read the extremist texts of influential Brotherhood ideologue Sayyid Qutb. Bin Laden’s friend at the time, Jamal Khalifa, later said that Qutb “was the one who most affected [his and bin Laden’s] generation.”Alastair Finlan, The Test of Terrorism: Responding to Political Violence in the Twenty-First Century, (London: Routledge: 2015); Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 90-92. In his books, Qutb called for an Islamic “vanguard” to take up jihad against secular governments and eventually resurrect the caliphate. Qutb also re-popularized the Islamic concept of takfir, which permits the labeling of fellow Muslims as apostates, thus justifying their persecution and murder.Alastair Finlan, The Test of Terrorism: Responding to Political Violence in the Twenty-First Century, (London: Routledge: 2015).

In 1974, bin Laden—then a deeply pious 18-year-old—married his 14-year-old Syrian cousin. Bin Laden would go on to marry two more women and father at least 23 children.“The life and death of Osama bin Laden,” Washington Post, May 2, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/world/timeline-life-of-osama-bin-laden/. Between 1976 and 1979, bin Laden studied economics at the King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah. There, he formed a religious charity on campus, whose members “devoted a lot of time to interpreting the Quran and jihad,” according to bin Laden’s own account.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 90. It was also at that university that bin Laden met Abdullah Azzam, a renowned Palestinian scholar and a professor at the school. Azzam, often referred to as the father of modern jihad, would serve as a spiritual mentor to bin Laden and eventually become a co-founder of al-Qaeda.Aryn Baker, “Who Killed Abdullah Azzam?” Time, June 18, 2009, http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1902809_1902810_1905173-1,00.html;
Asaf Maliach, “Abdullah Azzam, Al-Qaeda, and Hamas,” Institute for National Security Studies, October 2010, Volume 2, No. 2, http://www.inss.org.il/uploadimages/Import/(FILE)1298359986.pdf.

Bin Laden reportedly traveled to the Afghanistan-Pakistan border within two weeks of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 55, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf;
Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 109. Bin Laden acted as a visiting envoy, meeting various militant leaders and devising ways to raise funds for the mujahideen (“holy warriors”). In the early-mid 1980s, he traveled back and forth to Saudi Arabia, where he implored wealthy family members to financially support the Afghan jihad. Bin Laden also brought construction machinery and Arab recruits into Afghanistan, and provided the fighters with logistical and humanitarian aid.Kate Zernike and Michael T. Kaufman, “The Most Wanted Face of Terrorism,” New York Times, May 2, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/02osama-bin-laden-obituary.html; “Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html. Bin Laden’s former professor, Abdullah Azzam, arrived in Peshawar in late 1981, and the two men worked closely to recruit, train, and equip Arab fighters for the jihad.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 111.

In September 1984, bin Laden and Azzam decided to create a formal role for Arabs and other foreign (including Western) fighters in Afghanistan. The pair soon established the Services Bureau (Makhtab al-Khadamat)—an office, printing center, funds repository, and hostel for foreign mujahideen. Bin Laden also began to offer plane tickets, residences, and living expenses for the men, and by 1986 was believed to be paying $25,000 per month to subsidize the fighters.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 117-119.

In 1987, bin Laden met Ayman al-Zawahiri for the first time, in Pakistan.“Timeline of al-Zawahiri,” CNN, June 16, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/16/timeline-of-al-zawahiri/. At the time, Zawahiri, an Egyptian doctor, was a key leader of Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ)—a jihadist group responsible for the 1981 assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat.“Timeline of al-Zawahiri,” CNN, June 16, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/16/timeline-of-al-zawahiri/. Bin Laden and Zawahiri quickly developed a close working relationship, and co-founded al-Qaeda (“the base”) in August 1988 alongside several other Islamist operatives, including Azzam.“Egyptian Islamic Jihad,” Mapping Militant Organizations, last modified October 26, 2015, http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/401;
“A history of terror: Al-Qaeda 1988-2008,” Guardian (London), July 12, 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/13/history.alqaida;
“Tareekhosama/50/Tareekh Osama 122-123,” Intelwire.com, February 24, 2009, http://intelfiles.egoplex.com/1988-08-11-al-qaeda-founding.pdf;
Arabina Acharya, Ten Years After 9/11: Rethinking the Jihadist Threat, (London and New York: Routledge, 2013) 36. The secretary at the meeting noted that “al-Qaeda is basically an organized Islamic faction, its goal is to lift the word of God, to make His religion victorious.”Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 152;
Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, (New York: Random House, 2002), 103;
“Origins of Al Qaeda,” Global Issues on Terrorism, accessed May 1, 2017, https://sites.stedwards.edu/craigc-culf331111fa2014/group-middle-east-and-north-africa/origins-of-al-qaeda/.

Within a year, however, disagreements arose between bin Laden and Azzam on al-Qaeda’s trajectory. While Azzam envisioned bringing the fight to Israel after Afghanistan, bin Laden preferred to prioritize targeting of the United States and Arab regimes such as the Saudi government.Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, (New York: Random House, 2002), 103;
“Origins of Al Qaeda,” Global Issues on Terrorism, accessed May 1, 2017, https://sites.stedwards.edu/craigc-culf331111fa2014/group-middle-east-and-north-africa/origins-of-al-qaeda/. The disagreement ended when Azzam was killed in Peshawar on November 24, 1989.Aryn Baker, “Who Killed Abdullah Azzam?,” Time, June 18, 2009, http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1902809_1902810_1905173-1,00.html. Zawahiri continued to direct EIJ until it finally merged with al-Qaeda in 2001.“Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,” U.S. Department of State, April 2009, 305, https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf.

After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia emboldened by the perceived triumph of the mujahideen over the Soviets. While working at his father’s construction firm in Saudi Arabia, bin Laden was approached about moving his nascent al-Qaeda to Sudan by Hassan al-Turabi—the then-secretary general of the Sudanese Muslim Brotherhood.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 57, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf;
“Timeline: Al Qaeda’s Global Context,” PBS Frontline, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/knew/etc/cron.html;
Lawrence Joffe, “Hassan al-Turabi obituary,” Guardian (London), March 11, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/hassan-al-turabi-obituary. Turabi proposed allowing bin Laden use Sudan as al-Qaeda’s base in exchange for the building of roads and support in the ongoing war against Christian separatists in Southern Sudan.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 57, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf. Bin Laden would not relocate to Sudan until late 1991.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html.

In August 1990, as U.S. forces arrived in Saudi Arabia to prepare for the first Gulf War, bin Laden urged Saudi King Fahd to expel the Americans and instead allow the veterans of the Afghan war to defend the Arabian Peninsula. King Fahd declined bin Laden’s offer in favor of U.S. and allied forces.Andrew Wander, “A History of Terror: Al-Qaeda 1988-2008,” Guardian (London), July 12, 2008, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/13/history.alqaida. Enraged, bin Laden began to publicly rebuke the monarchy for its alliance with the United States, prompting Saudi Arabia to expel him in April 1991. Bin Laden fled to Afghanistan, and then accepted Sudanese leader Hassan al-Turabi’s offer—arriving in Sudan by 1992.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html. There, he established legitimate businesses and began to build out the al-Qaeda network.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html.

The first attack orchestrated by bin Laden and his associates occurred on December 19, 1992, when a bomb exploded in a hotel room in Aden, Yemen, killing two Australian tourists. Bin Laden had intended for the explosion to kill a unit of U.S. soldiers, but those troops had already left the premises.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html. Attacks perpetrated by al-Qaeda operatives and like-minded jihadist increased in the following years. On February 26, 1993, Ramzi Yousef—a Pakistani terrorist not directly linked to al-Qaeda—carried out the Word Trade Center bombing, killing six people and injuring over 1,000 others. While bin Laden praised Yousef’s bombing, he is not believed to have played a role in the attack.Robert Windrem, “Al-Qaida timeline: Plots and attacks,” MSNBC Research and NBC News, http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4677978/ns/world_news-hunt_for_al_qaida/t/al-qaida-timeline-plots-attacks/#.WN61y28rKpo.

In April 1994, the Saudi government revoked bin Laden’s citizenship and froze his assets. Undeterred, bin Laden continued to grow his operations, establishing training camps for foreign fighters in Yemen near the Saudi border, according to U.S. intelligence sources.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html;
“TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court, Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html. Meanwhile, the United States and Saudi Arabia began to pressure Sudan to expel bin Laden, citing his danger to the international community. In May 1996, Turabi reportedly gave bin Laden the choice to stay in Sudan and keep his operations quiet, or to leave the country altogether. Bin Laden opted to relocate his growing jihadist movement, and moved to Afghanistan shortly thereafter.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 252-253; “TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court, Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html;
“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html.

The Taliban controlled much of Afghanistan by the time bin Laden arrived. The group’s leader, Mullah Omar, allowed bin Laden to settle his family and operatives in the eastern city of Jalalabad. Bin Laden would later pledge allegiance to Mullah Omar in late August or early September 1998, forming a bond between the groups that persists to this day.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 254-255, 326.

Bin Laden issued his first fatwa soon after arriving in Afghanistan. The statement, titled “Declaration of War Against the Americans Who Occupy the Land of the Two Holy Mosques,” was published by London’s Al Quds al Arabi newspaper on August 23, 1996. In it, bin Laden called on Muslims to force the U.S. military out of the Arabian Peninsula; dethrone the Saudi government; punish the U.S. and its allies for their “Crusade” against Islam; and liberate Muslim holy sites.“Bin Laden’s Fatwa,” PBS Newshour, August 23, 1996, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-july-dec96-fatwa_1996/;
“Osama bin Laden v. the U.S.: Edits and Statements,” PBS Frontline, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/edicts.html;
“Timeline: Osama bin Laden, over the years,” CNN, May 2, 2011, http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/05/02/osama.timeline/. Soon after the fatwa’s publication, bin Laden was visited by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (KSM)—the uncle of World Trade Center bomber Ramzi Yousef. KSM appealed to bin Laden for funds and material to carry out a largescale attack in the United States. Bin Laden agreed to front the funds and asked KSM to join al-Qaeda, though KSM politely declined, deciding to operate independently.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 147, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf.

Bin Laden would continue to issue fatwas and orchestrate largescale attacks against U.S. targets. In February 1998, he released his second fatwa—“Declaration of the World Islamic Front for Jihad against the Jews and the Crusaders”—in which he declared it a duty for Muslims to carry out jihad against Islam’s enemies and to expel Americans from the Gulf region.“Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders,” Federation of American Scientists, February 23, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm. That August, al-Qaeda carried out its then-largest attack when operatives targeted the U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The explosions in Nairobi killed 213 people—nearly all Kenyans and 12 Americans—and injured approximately 5,000 others. In Dar es Salaam, the bombs killed 11 people, none of them Americans.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 70, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf. Three months later, in November 1998, bin Laden was indicted by a U.S. Federal Grand Jury in New York for engaging in a long-term conspiracy to attack U.S. facilities overseas and to kill American citizens.“TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court, Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html;
Bill Mears, “Bin Laden charges formally dropped,” CNN, June 17, 2011, http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/06/17/bin.laden.charges/. At around the same time he was indicted in New York, bin Laden met with KSM in Pakistan and officially approved his plot to weaponize airplanes and crash them into buildings in the United States. The 9/11 plot had begun to take form.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 149; 167, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf.

In November 1999, bin Laden received four visitors—Mohamed Atta, Marwan al Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh. The men were members of an al-Qaeda cell in Hamburg, Germany, and were eager to partake in a terrorist attack against the United States. After swearing fealty to bin Laden, the men were instructed to enroll in flight training schools in the West. Bin Laden selected Atta to lead the cell, and revealed to him al-Qaeda’s top targets in the United States: the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the U.S. Capitol. Atta, Shehhi, and Jarrah would become hijacker-pilots in the 9/11 attacks, whereas Shibh would serve as a key facilitator in the attacks.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 166; 242, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf. Shibh is currently held by the United States as an enemy combatant at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.“Ramzi Bin al Shibh: Guantanamo Docket,” New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10013-ramzi-bin-al-shibh.

On October 12, 2000, in al-Qaeda’s last largescale attack before 9/11, two al-Qaeda suicide bombers steered a small boat laden with 400 to 700 pounds of explosives into the port side of the USS Cole while it refueled in Aden, Yemen. The explosion killed 17 U.S. sailors.“USS Cole Bombing Fast Facts,” CNN, October 6, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/world/meast/uss-cole-bombing-fast-facts/. The attack was masterminded by al-Qaeda operative Abd Rahim al-Nashiri upon instructions from bin Laden to target U.S. warships in Yemen’s southern port of Aden.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): [152], http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf.

On September 11, 2001, 19 al-Qaeda operatives hijacked U.S. commercial airliners and flew them into the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. A fourth hijacked airplane crashed in a field in rural Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 civilians were killed and thousands more injured.“Timeline: Al-Qaeda,” BBC News, September 4, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3618762.stm. Within weeks, the U.S. launched military operations against al-Qaeda’s suspected safe havens in Afghanistan. That December, bin Laden is believed to have escaped U.S. bombing in Afghanistan’s Tora Bora Mountains and fled to Pakistan.Kate Zernike and Michael T. Kaufman, “The Most Wanted Face of Terrorism,” New York Times, May 2, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/02osama-bin-laden-obituary.html.

Bin Laden did not claim responsibility for the 9/11 attacks until October 2004, when he appeared in a video released by Al Jazeera.“Bin Laden: 'Your security is in your own hands,'” CNN, October 29, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/10/29/bin.laden.transcript/. “We should destroy towers in America [because] we are a free people…and we want to regain the freedom of our nation,” bin Laden reasoned. The al-Qaeda leader further said that America might avoid another 9/11-style attack if it stopped compromising the “security” of Muslims, warning, “As you undermine our security we undermine yours.”“Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11,” CBC News, October 29, 2004, http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654;
“Bin Laden Claims Responsibility for 9/11,” Fox News, October 30, 2004, http://www.foxnews.com/story/2004/10/30/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-11.html.

Bin Laden is believed to have settled in a compound in Abbottabad during the 2000s, though there is little publically available information on his whereabouts during this time. In 2009, the U.S. government announced that the al-Qaeda leader was most likely living on the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, but conceded that it had a “lack of intelligence” regarding his exact location.“Osama bin Laden Fast Facts,” CNN, May 2, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/30/world/osama-bin-laden-fast-facts/. Living as an elusive fugitive, bin Laden was still able to release videos threatening the West and claim responsibility for al-Qaeda-linked attacks. In January 2010, bin Laden claimed responsibility for the failed bombing of a civilian airliner over Detroit, Michigan, on December 25, 2009. Perpetrated by “underwear bomber” Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, the attack had been planned by al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) cleric Anwar al-Awlaki.Scott Shane and Eric Lipton, “Passengers’ Quick Action Halted Attack,” New York Times, December 26, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/27/us/27plane.html.

In the early morning of May 2, 2011, a small team of U.S. Navy SEALS entered the Abbottabad compound where bin Laden was living and killed the 54-year-old al-Qaeda leader in a shootout. His body was transported to the U.S. aircraft carrier the USS Carl Vinson and given an Islamic burial at sea within 24 hours.“Osama Bin Laden: What happened to his body?,” BBC News, May 2, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13261680. In a televised statement on the night of May 2, President Barack Obama referred to bin Laden as al-Qaeda’s “leader and symbol” and warned that bin Laden’s death did “not mark the end of our effort. There’s no doubt that al-Qaeda will continue to pursue attacks against us.”Peter Baker, Helene Cooper, Mark Mazzetti, “Bin Laden Is Dead, Obama Says,” New York Times, May 1, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0;
“Osama bin Laden Fast Facts,” CNN, May 2, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/30/world/osama-bin-laden-fast-facts/.

Bin Laden’s burial at sea took place within 24 hours of his death with proper religious rites, in accordance with Islamic law. Some Islamic scholars have argued there was no reason to give bin Laden a burial at sea instead of turning the body over to family or even his supporters for a proper burial. Dubai’s grand mufti Mohammed al-Qubaisi said at the time a sea burial was inappropriate and Islamic law required digging a simple grave if nobody was available to take custody of the body. U.S. officials, however, said there was not enough time to negotiate with other countries to take custody of the body. They further said the burial at sea took place to avoid bin Laden’s grave becoming a shrine.“Osama Bin Laden: What happened to his body?,” BBC News, May 2, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13261680.

Ayman al-Zawahiri, previously al-Qaeda’s second-in-command, was elevated to leader of the international terror group six weeks after bin Laden’s death. Zawahiri vowed to continue waging jihad against “crusader America and its servant Israel, and whoever supports them.”“Al-Qaeda’s remaining leaders,” BBC news, June 16, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11489337. Bin Laden’s son Hamza bin laden was a key al-Qaeda operative being groomed for a senior leadership role prior to his own death in a 2019 U.S. counterterrorism operation in the Afghanistan-Pakistan region.Dugald McConnell and Brian Todd, “Latest al Qaeda propaganda highlights bin Laden’s son,” CNN, May 15, 2017,  http://www.cnn.com/2017/05/15/middleeast/al-qaeda-bin-laden-son/index.html; Alex Horton, “Osama bin Laden’s son, once the probable heir to al-Qaeda leadership, killed in U.S. operation, Trump confirms,” Washington Post, September 14, 2019, https://beta.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2019/09/14/hamza-bin-laden-once-possible-heir-al-qaeda-was-killed-us-operation-trump-says/. Zawahiri reportedly died in November 2020 from asthma, but his death remains unconfirmed by al-Qaeda.Baker Atyani and Sayed Salahuddin, “Al-Qaeda chief Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan — sources,” Arab News, November 20, 2020, https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1765746/world; Tim Stickings, “Al-Qaeda's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri has died, reports claim terror chief Ayman al-Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan from ‘asthma-related breathing issues,’” Daily Mail (London), November 20, 2020, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8970231/Al-Qaedas-leader-Ayman-al-Zawahiri-died-reports-claim.html.

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini was the founder and first supreme leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran. In that role, Khomeini created or influenced multiple violent extremist groups, including Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and the Lebanese political-terror hybrid Hezbollah. Even after his death in 1989, Khomeini’s views and philosophies, collectively known as Khomeinism, have continued to guide the Iranian regime and its terrorist proxies.Raymond H. Anderson, “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader,” New York Times, June 4, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/04/obituaries/ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-89-the-unwavering-iranian-spiritual-leader.html;
Don A. Schanche, “Ayatollah Khomeini Dies at 86: Fiery Leaders Was in Failing Health Following Surgery,” Los Angeles Times, June 4, 1989, http://articles.latimes.com/1989-06-04/news/mn-2499_1_ayatollah-khomeini-dies-power-struggle-jurisprudent;
“The Imam’s Background,” The Institute For Compilation and Publications of Imam Khomeini’s Works, August 16, 2011, http://en.imam-khomeini.ir/en/n3123/Biography/The_Imam_s_Background;
Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, “Khamenei and Hezbollah: Leading in Spirit,” Al-Akbar English, August 8, 2012, http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/10894.

Various records place Khomeini’s birth year as early as 1900 and as late as 1903. Born in Khomein, Iran, Khomeini was raised by his aunt’s family after the death of his father and his mother’s relocation to Tehran.Raymond H. Anderson, “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader,” New York Times, June 4, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/04/obituaries/ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-89-the-unwavering-iranian-spiritual-leader.html;Los Angeles Times, June 4, 1989, http://articles.latimes.com/1989-06-04/news/mn-2499_1_ayatollah-khomeini-dies-power-struggle-jurisprudent;
“The Imam’s Background,” The Institute For Compilation and Publications of Imam Khomeini’s Works, August 16, 2011, http://en.imam-khomeini.ir/en/n3123/Biography/The_Imam_s_Background. He began religious studies at the age of 16 and then taught at Iran’s Qom seminary—eventually becoming a leading Shiite scholar in the country.“The childhood period,” The Institute For Compilation and Publications of Imam Khomeini’s Works, August 16, 2011, http://en.imam-khomeini.ir/en/n3122/Biography/The_childhood_period. In 1941, Khomeini published his seminal book, Unveiling the Mysteries, in which he laid out his argument for an Islamic government in Iran. Khomeini wrote that the shah’s laws were “valueless and all laws approved by the Parliament must be burned.”Raymond H. Anderson, “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader,” New York Times, June 4, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/04/obituaries/ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-89-the-unwavering-iranian-spiritual-leader.html. Because of his scholarship, the Shiite religious community awarded Khomeini the honorific title of ayatollah (reflection of Allah). In 1962, he earned the rarer title of grand ayatollah, then held by only six other men in the country.Raymond H. Anderson, “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader,” New York Times, June 4, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/04/obituaries/ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-89-the-unwavering-iranian-spiritual-leader.html.

In the early 1960s, Khomeini began to publicly criticize Iranian leader Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, accusing his “un-Islamic” government of acting at the behest of the United States, Great Britain, and Israel. Khomeini’s message began to gain momentum, leading government forces to arrest him in 1962 and 1963.“Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-1989),” BBC, accessed March 17, 2017, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/khomeini_ayatollah.shtml;
Raymond H. Anderson, “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader,” New York Times, June 4, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/04/obituaries/ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-89-the-unwavering-iranian-spiritual-leader.html.The Iranian government finally expelled Khomeini from the country in November 1964 after he protested the exemption of U.S. military members from Iranian legal jurisdiction.Raymond H. Anderson, “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader,” New York Times, June 4, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/04/obituaries/ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-89-the-unwavering-iranian-spiritual-leader.html.

Following his expulsion from Iran, Khomeini moved briefly to Turkey and then to Iraq, where he lived for 13 years while continuing to speak out against the shah.“Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-1989),” BBC, accessed March 17, 2017, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/khomeini_ayatollah.shtml;
“Exile to Paris,” Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works, August 16, 2011, http://en.imam-khomeini.ir/en/n2276/Biography/Exile_to_Paris. In Iraq in 1970, Khomeini wrote Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist, in which he outlined his modern interpretation of the ninth-century Shiite concept of vilayat-e faqih, or guardianship of the Islamic jurist. Traditionally, the philosophy called for a single Islamic jurist to be endowed with religious authority while leaving political authority in the hands of the state, though scholars disputed the exact division of power. Khomeini used the concept to justify his vision of a single cleric overseeing Iran’s religious, military, and governmental sectors in order to ensure compliance with “divine law,” since only then could such a government be “accepted by God on Resurrection Day,” as he wrote in Unveiling the Mysteries.“Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist,” Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project, accessed March 20, 2017, https://www.al-islam.org/islamic-government-governance-of-jurist-imam-khomeini;
Raymond H. Anderson, “Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader,” New York Times, June 4, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/1989/06/04/obituaries/ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-89-the-unwavering-iranian-spiritual-leader.html. Iran would eventually enshrine Khomeini’s interpretation of vilayat-e faqih into its 1979 constitution, thereby justifying the continued authoritarian role of the country’s supreme leader.“Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran,” Constitution.com, accessed March 20, 2017, http://constitution.com/constitution-of-the-islamic-republic-of-iran/.

The Baha’is are not a genuine religion, and have no place in Iran.Ruhollah Khomeini, 1979

In September 1978, the Iranian government imposed martial law after anti-shah riots broke out across Iran.“Iran profile – timeline,” BBC News, December 20, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14542438. The following month, Iraq expelled Khomeini amid pressure from the Iranian government. Khomeini subsequently relocated to Paris after being denied entry to Kuwait.“Exile to Paris,” Institute for Compilation and Publication of Imam Khomeini’s Works, August 16, 2011, http://en.imam-khomeini.ir/en/n2276/Biography/Exile_to_Paris. On January 12, 1979, while in Paris, Khomeini helped to form the Islamic Revolutionary Council with hardline Iranian religious leaders in Iran. The council oversaw protests against the shah and later appointed Khomeini’s revolutionary government.“Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-1989),” BBC, accessed March 17, 2017, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/khomeini_ayatollah.shtml.

Khomeini returned to Iran on February 1, 1979—weeks after the shah had left the country for cancer treatment.“Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-1989),” BBC, accessed March 17, 2017, http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/khomeini_ayatollah.shtml. By this time, violent demonstrations against the government had broken out across Iran. Upon his arrival in Tehran, Khomeini addressed revolutionary supporters and issued a warning to shah-appointed Prime Minister Shapour Bakhtiar: “If you do not surrender to the nation, the nation will put you in your place.” Khomeini promised supporters he would form a new Islamic government and draft a new constitution.Muhammad Sahimi, “The Ten Days That Changed Iran,” Frontline, February 3, 2010, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2010/02/fajr-10-days-that-changed-iran.html.

Khomeini quickly worked to coopt Iranian political leaders and military forces. On February 2, 1979, Khomeini called on Iran’s armed forces to join the Revolutionary Council. The following day, Tehran’s mayor, Javad Shahrestani, tendered his resignation to the shah’s government and was asked by Khomeini to serve in the new Islamic Republic. Khomeini also met with senior Iranian religious leaders to convince them to support his revolution. On February 5, the last of Iran’s parliament resigned and Khomeini appointed a new prime minister, Mehdi Bazargan.Muhammad Sahimi, “The Ten Days That Changed Iran,” Frontline, February 3, 2010, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2010/02/fajr-10-days-that-changed-iran.html.

Fighting broke out across Iran between protesters, military forces still loyal to the shah, and military forces who had defected to Khomeini.Muhammad Sahimi, “The Ten Days That Changed Iran,” Frontline, February 3, 2010, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2010/02/fajr-10-days-that-changed-iran.html. On February 10, 1979, the beleaguered Iranian government ordered the SAVAK, Iran’s secret police, to arrest Khomeini and 200 others, including journalists and leftists. But pro-Khomeini members of the SAVAK alerted Khomeini, resulting in intensified clashes between pro-Khomeini and pro-regime supporters. The following day, Khomeini called on a group of Iranian soldiers to “act contrary” to the oath they swore to the shah’s government.Muhammad Sahimi, “The Ten Days That Changed Iran,” Frontline, February 3, 2010, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2010/02/fajr-10-days-that-changed-iran.html.

On February 11, 1979, fighting between Khomeini’s followers and Iranian forces left more than 220 people dead. In response, Iran’s armed forces declared their neutrality in the conflict, immediately leading Khomeini and his proto-Islamic Republic to declare victory in deposing the shah’s government.Muhammad Sahimi, “The Ten Days That Changed Iran,” Frontline, February 3, 2010, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tehranbureau/2010/02/fajr-10-days-that-changed-iran.html. In late March 1979, Iran held a two-day national referendum deciding whether to transform Iran into Khomeini’s vision of an Islamic republic. A clear majority—97 percent—of Iranians voted in Khomeini’s favor, and on April 1, 1979, Khomeini declared the new Islamic Republic of Iran a “government of God.”“Iran profile – timeline,” BBC News, December 20, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14542438;
Gregory Jaynes, “Khomeini Declares Victory in Vote For a ‘Government of God’ in Iran,” New York Times, April 2, 1979, http://www.nytimes.com/1979/04/02/archives/khomeini-declares-victory-in-vote-for-a-government-of-god-in-iran.html?_r=0. That December, Iran passed a new constitution and named Khomeini the supreme leader.Pranay B. Gupte, “Member of Iranian Minority Says Khomeini’s Charter Is ‘Not for Us,’” New York Times, December 5, 1979, http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9504E4DB1438E732A25756C0A9649D946890D6CF.

Vilayat-e faqih is enshrined in Iran’s constitution.

Khomeini and his successor Ali Khamenei have utilized the concept of vilayat-e faqih to maintain the loyalty of Iranian military forces and Iranian-backed extremist movements. In the first months after the 1979 Iranian revolution, before its existence was enshrined in law, the IRGC operated as a militant activist network loyal to Khomeini, helping to stamp out dissident currents within the revolutionary movement.Afshon P. Ostover, Guardians of the Islamic Revolution: Ideology, Politics, and the Development of Military Power in Iran, 1979-2009, University of Michigan, 2009, 50-52. Since its founding, the IRGC has answered directly to the Iranian supreme leader and is tasked with preserving the Islamic government.Babak Dehghanpisheh, “Iran Guards Wield Electoral Power behind Scenes,” Reuters, June 4, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/04/us-iran-election-guards-idUSBRE9530V120130604. In 1980, Khomeini’s government created the Basij militia, a paramilitary organization to enforce obedience domestically. Incorporated into the IRGC in 2007, the Basij has carried out widespread human rights abuses in Iran, notoriously during the 2009 protests against the contested presidential elections when its members attacked student dormitories and assaulted protesters.Frederic Wehrey et al., The Rise of the Pasdaran: Assessing the Domestic Roles of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (Santa Monica, Arlington, and Pittsburgh: RAND Corporation, 2009), 33, http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2008/RAND_MG821.pdf;
“IRGC’s Basij Paramilitary Trains Special Battalions for Crackdown on Potential Protests,” International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, February 24, 2014, http://www.iranhumanrights.org/2014/02/basij-battalions/.

Under Khomeini’s direction in the early 1980s, the IRGC provided funding, training, and weaponry to a group of Shiite militants in Lebanon that would emerge as Hezbollah in 1982.Jonathan Masters and Zachary Laub, “Hezbollah (a.k.a. Hizbollah, Hizbu’llah),” Council on Foreign Relations, January 3, 2014, http://www.cfr.org/lebanon/hezbollah-k-hizbollah-hizbullah/p9155. That year, the predecessor to Hezbollah’s Shura Council sent a delegation to Tehran to brief Khomeini on the group’s activities. According to an account given by Hezbollah Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah, Khomeini told Hezbollah to “rely on God,” and “spoke of [future] victories.”Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, “Khamenei and Hezbollah: Leading in Spirit,” Al-Akbar English, August 8, 2012, http://english.al-akhbar.com/node/10894. Hezbollah pledged its loyalty to Khomeini in its 1985 manifesto, which explicitly states its compliance to the dictates of “one leader, wise and just, that of our tutor and faqih (jurist) who fulfills all the necessary conditions: [Ayatollah] Ruhollah Musawi Khomeini.”“An Open Letter: The Hizballah Program,” Council on Foreign Relations, January 1, 1988, http://www.cfr.org/terrorist-organizations-and-networks/open-letter-hizballah-program/p30967.

Khomeini’s early support for Hezbollah was but one manifestation of his antipathy toward Israel. In August 1979, Khomeini declared the first Al Quds Day—the Arabic word for Jerusalem—on the last Friday of the Muslim holy month of Ramadan to be an annual, nation-wide protest against Israel.“Quds Days,” United Against Nuclear Iran, accessed March 21, 2017, http://www.unitedagainstnucleariran.com/quds-day. Today, Iran and its proxies annually mark Al Quds Day with protests and rallies, frequently accompanied by chants of “Death to Israel.”Siavash Ardalan, “Iran's 'Jerusalem Day': Behind the rallies and rhetoric,” BBC News, August 2, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-23448932.

I once again remind everyone of the danger of the prevalent, festering and cancerous Zionist tumor in the body of Islamic countries.Ruhollah Khomeini, 1987

Khomeini’s hostility toward Israel was overshadowed only by his hatred for the United States, which he blamed for interfering in domestic Iranian affairs, including through support of the shah’s regime. Khomeini’s anti-American stance fueled Iranian hostilities toward the United States, such as in November 1979 when Iranian students attacked the U.S. embassy in Tehran. The students took 90 people hostage, including 66 Americans, and demanded the shah’s extradition from the United States to Iran for trial. Khomeini immediately praised the students’ actions. After the shah’s death in July 1980, Khomeini demanded that in exchange for the hostages, the United States unfreeze Iranian assets and transfer the shah’s U.S.-based property and wealth to the Iranian government. Throughout 1979 and 1980, the protesters released non-American hostages, female and African-American hostages, and eventually one ill American hostage.D. Parvaz, “Iran 1979: the Islamic revolution that shook the world,” Al Jazeera, February 11, 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/01/iran-1979-revolution-shook-world-2014121134227652609.html;
“Iran Hostage Crisis Fast Facts,” CNN, last updated October 29, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/meast/iran-hostage-crisis-fast-facts/;
Susan Chun, “Six things you didn’t know about the Iran hostage crisis,” CNN, last updated July 16, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/27/world/ac-six-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-iran-hostage-crisis/.

The remaining 52 American hostages were released on January 21, 1981, one day after Iran and the United States signed the Algiers Accords.D. Parvaz, “Iran 1979: the Islamic revolution that shook the world,” Al Jazeera, February 11, 2014, http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2014/01/iran-1979-revolution-shook-world-2014121134227652609.html;
“Iran Hostage Crisis Fast Facts,” CNN, last updated October 29, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/15/world/meast/iran-hostage-crisis-fast-facts/;
Susan Chun, “Six things you didn’t know about the Iran hostage crisis,” CNN, last updated July 16, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/27/world/ac-six-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-iran-hostage-crisis/. As stipulated in the accords, the United States agreed “not to intervene, directly or indirectly, politically or militarily” in Iranian affairs in exchange for the hostages’ release. The United States also agreed to release frozen Iranian assets to a third party.“Text of Agreement Between Iran and the U.S. to Resolve the Hostage Situation,” New York Times, January 20, 1981, http://www.nytimes.com/1981/01/20/world/text-of-agreement-between-iran-and-the-us-to-resolve-the-hostage-situation.html?pagewanted=all. The agreement, however, did little to assuage Khomeini’s ill will toward the United States, which he continued to refer to as the “great Satan.” In his last will and testament in 1989, Khomeini called the United States “the foremost enemy of Islam,” casting it as the root cause of Iran’s economic and political troubles and the leader of an international anti-Islamic front.“In The Name of God The Compassionate, the Merciful,” Al Seraj, accessed June 19, 2014, http://www.alseraj.net/maktaba/kotob/english/Miscellaneousbooks/LastwillofImamKhomeini/occasion/ertehal/english/will/lmnew1.htm.

We must all be prepared... [to] fight against America and its lackeys.Ruhollah Khomeini, 1988

Khomeini regarded the Islamic Republic as the guardian of Islam against the secular world. This belief was notoriously exhibited in Khomeini’s 1989 fatwa ordering the death of British-Indian novelist Salman Rushdie for his novel The Satanic Verses. According to Khomeini, the novel—inspired by the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad—ran counter to the tenets of Islam, Muhammad, and the Quran.Sheila Rule, “Khomeini Urges Muslims to Kill Author of Novel,” New York Times, February 15, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/04/18/specials/rushdie-khomeini.html. Days after Khomeini issued the fatwa, Rushdie publicly apologized for “the distress that [his] publication has occasioned to sincere followers of Islam.”Steve Lohr, “Rushdie Expresses Regret to Muslims for Book’s Effect,” New York Times, February 19, 1989, http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/04/18/specials/rushdie-regret.html. Khomeini promptly rejected the apology, urging Muslims around the world to “send [Rushdie] to hell.”Michael Ross, “From the archives: Khomeini Renews Call for Death of Rushdie,” Los Angeles Times, February 20, 1989, http://articles.latimes.com/1989-02-20/world/la-fg-iran-archive-1989feb20_1_salman-rushdie-ayatollah-ruhollah-khomeini-satanic-verses. Khomeini’s successor, Ali Khamenei, announced in 2005 that the fatwa ordering Rushdie’s death remained in effect.Independent, “Iranian state media renew fatwa on Salman Rushdie,” USA Today, February 23, 2016, http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/02/23/iranian-state-media-renew-fatwa-salman-rushdie/80790502/. In February 2016, 40 Iranian state-run media outlets offered a $600,000 joint reward for Rushdie’s murder.Independent, “Iranian state media renew fatwa on Salman Rushdie,” USA Today, February 23, 2016, http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/02/23/iranian-state-media-renew-fatwa-salman-rushdie/80790502/. Affiliated with Iran’s supreme leader, the Iranian charity 15 Khordad Foundation has maintained a multi-million-dollar bounty on Rushdie since 1989. In 2012, the foundation raised its reward to $3.3 million and promised the full sum would be immediately paid to whoever kills Rushdie. The U.S. government levied sanctions on the foundation in October 2022 in the aftermath of an August 12, 2022, attack on Rushdie in Chautauqua, New York, by suspect Hadi Matar.“Treasury Sanctions Iranian Foundation Behind Bounty on Salman Rushdie,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, October 28, 2022, https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy1059; Steven Vago and Ben Kesslen, “Salman Rushdie attacker praises Iran’s ayatollah, surprised author survived: jailhouse interview,” New York Post, August 17, 2022, https://nypost.com/2022/08/17/alleged-salman-rushdie-attacker-didnt-think-author-would-survive/.

Khomeini died on June 3, 1989. The following day, Ali Khamenei was named Iran’s supreme leader.“Iran profile – timeline,” BBC News, December 20, 2016, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14542438. Khomeini remains a revered figure among Shiite Muslims internationally, and tens of thousands of people reportedly attend annual ceremonies at Khomeini’s tomb in Tehran.“Revamped Khomeini Shrine Shocks Even His Fans,” Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty, May 29, 2015, http://www.rferl.org/a/iran-khomenei-shrine-shocks-supporters-lavish/27043433.html;
Ramin Mostaghim and Nabih Bulos, “Iran marks 25th anniversary of Ayatollah Khomeini's death, knocks U.S.,” Los Angeles Times, June 4, 2014, http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-iran-anniversary-khomeini-death-20140604-story.html. Khomeini’s philosophies continue to resonate among Shiite extremists. Iraqi Shiite militias such as the Badr Organization, Asaib Ahl al-Haq, and Kata’ib Hezbollah have pledged allegiance to the Iranian regime and Khamenei out of duty to vilayat-e faqih.Ned Parker, Babak Dehghanpisheh, and Isabel Coles, “Special Report: How Iran's military chiefs operate in Iraq,” Reuters, February 24, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-committee-specialrepor-idUSKBN0LS0VD20150224;
Richard R. Brennan et al., eds., Ending the U.S. War in Iraq: the Final Transition, Operational Maneuver, and Disestablishment of United States Forces-Iraq (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2013), 138-139, http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR200/RR232/RAND_RR232.pdf;
Ned Parker and Raheem Salman, “In defense of Baghdad, Iraq turns to Shi'ite militias,” Reuters, June 14, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/06/14/us-iraq-security-volunteers-idUSKBN0EP0O920140614.

U.S.-sanctioned Abdallah al-Muhaysini is a senior leader in al-Qaeda’s Syrian-based al-Nusra Front, having served at various times as a recruiter, fundraiser, and religious advisor for the terrorist group.“Treasury Designates Key Al-Nusrah Front Leaders,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 10, 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0605.aspx. Muhaysini has raised millions of dollars for al-Nusra Front, boasting of having raised at least $5 million through a variety of terrorist fronts. In April 2016, Muhaysini launched a campaign to recruit 3,000 child and teenage soldiers from across northern Syria. In addition to fundraising and recruiting on behalf of al-Nusra Front, Muhaysini has also served at various times as its military strategist and political representative.“Treasury Designates Key Al-Nusrah Front Leaders,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 10, 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0605.aspx.

Muhaysini was born in 1987 in the Qassim region of north-central Saudi Arabia. After having reportedly memorized the Quran by the age of 15, Muhaysini graduated from the University of Umm al-Qura in Mecca with a degree in sharia (Islamic law).Aaron Y. Zelin, “The Saudi Foreign Fighter Presence in Syria,” Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, April 28, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-saudi-foreign-fighter-presence-in-syria. Muhaysini earned his doctorate degree soon after from the Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh, where he studied under extremist, al-Qaeda-affiliated propagandist Sulayman al-Ulwan. After serving as the imam at the Qatar mosque in Mecca, Muhaysini left for Syria in or around 2013, where he quickly took up with al-Nusra Front. He was photographed alongside notorious Chechen Nusra commander Omar al-Shishani, and has admitted to having spoken with al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri by phone.Aaron Y. Zelin, “The Saudi Foreign Fighter Presence in Syria,” Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, April 28, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-saudi-foreign-fighter-presence-in-syria. Before he became the target of U.S. sanctions in November 2016, Muhaysini maintained an English-language Twitter account under the handle @Muhaysini_EN, where Muhaysini—despite his affiliation with al-Nusra Front—claimed to be an “immigrant to Shaam [Syria]” and “an independent student of knowledge who doesn’t belong to any [rebel] faction.”Thomas Joscelyn, “US Treasury designates Saudi jihadist cleric, three others in Syria,” Long War Journal, November 10, 2016, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/11/us-treasury-designates-saudi-jihadist-cleric-three-others-in-syria.php. Before finally being suspended in November 2016, Muhaysini’s Twitter account had reached more than 60,000 followers.Rukmini Callimachi, “Protest of U.S. Terror Listing Offers a Glimpse at Qaeda Strategy,” New York Times, November 17, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/world/middleeast/protest-of-us-terror-listing-offers-a-glimpse-at-qaeda-strategy.html.

Muhaysini was sanctioned by the U.S. government for his role in al-Nusra Front on November 10, 2016.“Treasury Designates Key Al-Nusrah Front Leaders,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 10, 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0605.aspx. In an interview with the New York Times released the following week, Muhaysini denied any affiliation with al-Qaeda and claimed that Syrians were outraged at the designation since he was a “national symbol” for the Syrian people. As the Times reports, however, Muhaysini has used his social media profile to eulogize deceased al-Qaeda leaders and encourage suicide bombers to carry out attacks. As the Times notes, Muhaysini was even profiled in one of al-Qaeda’s magazines, Al Risalah.Rukmini Callimachi, “Protest of U.S. Terror Listing Offers a Glimpse at Qaeda Strategy,” New York Times, November 17, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/world/middleeast/protest-of-us-terror-listing-offers-a-glimpse-at-qaeda-strategy.html.

In September 2017, Muhaysini announced his resignation from Hay’at Tahrir al Sham (HTS), a group formed from a merger of al-Nusra Front and several smaller groups. He complained about the infighting between HTS and Ahrar al-Sham and leaked audio recordings that exposed that some within HTS had it out for him, citing these as the reasons for his resignation.Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda again addresses factional infighting in Syria,” Long war Journal, March 24, 2018, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2018/03/al-qaeda-again-addresses-factional-infighting-in-syria.php. He has also survived two assassination attempts. The first by a suicide bomber in June 2017 left him unharmed and the second in April 2018 by a road side bomb wounded him.Angus McDowall, “Militant Saudi cleric survives assassination attempt in Syria,” Reuters, June 16, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assassination/militant-saudi-cleric-survives-assassination-attempt-in-syria-idUSKBN1972AJ; “Abdullah Al-Muhaysini Wounded in Assassination Attempt in Syria's Idlib,” Fars News Agency, April 28, 2018, http://en.farsnews.com/newstext.aspx?nn=13970208000469.

In September 2018, after a Turkish book accused Muhaysini of hostility towards Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Muhaysini responded in defense of the president. He called Erdoğan “a diligent Muslim . . . who is trying to reform his country, and support the issues of Muslims,” praising him for moving Turkey away from secularism.Thomas Joscelyn and Caleb Weiss, “Jihadi Ideologues Argue of Turkey’s Erdogan,” FDD’s Long War Journal, September 28, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/09/jihadist-ideologues-argue-over-turkeys-erdogan.php. This drew a rebuke from jihadi ideologue Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, who argued that supporting Erdoğan is a “dilution of ideology.” Maqdisi cited Turkey’s participation in NATO, the invasion of Afghanistan, recognition of the “apostate government of Somalia,” and respect for established international borders to indict jihadist supporters of Erdoğan. Muhaysini responded to this criticism by claiming Maqdisi is not a real sheikh and thus has no authority to issue fatwa. He also accused Maqdisi of harming the jihad in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria by his overly harsh application of takfir, of disparaging the names of Hamas co-founder Ahmed Yassin and jihad “godfather” Abdullah Azzam, and of being excessively lenient towards elements of ISIS.Thomas Joscelyn and Caleb Weiss, “Jihadi Ideologues Argue of Turkey’s Erdogan,” FDD’s Long War Journal, September 28, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/09/jihadist-ideologues-argue-over-turkeys-erdogan.php.

Egyptian national Gehad El-Haddad is the imprisoned spokesman of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. Before his September 2013 arrest, Haddad served as the main point of contact between the Brotherhood and the international media. He also served as chief of staff to the Brotherhood’s now-imprisoned Deputy Supreme Guide Khairat el-Shater. Haddad was arrested in an apartment in Cairo on September 17, 2013, on charges of inciting to kill protesters of former Egyptian President Mohammed Morsi.“Egypt detains Brotherhood spokesman Haddad – officials,” Reuters, September 17, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/uk-egypt-protests-haddad-idUKBRE98G0OL20130917;
Ed Payne, “Egypt arrests Muslim Brotherhood spokesman,” CNN, September 18, 2013, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/world/meast/egypt-muslim-brotherhood-arrest/.

Prior to Mohammed Morsi’s June 2012 election, Haddad reportedly volunteered for the Muslim Brotherhood as a media strategist. He also worked at the Cairo office of the Clinton Climate Initiative—founded by former U.S. President Bill Clinton. Directly following Morsi’s election, Haddad began working full-time on the Brotherhood’s “Renaissance Project,” chaired by Khairat el-Shater and described by Egypt Independent as “a 25-year project to reform state, business and civil society, rooted in the Brotherhood’s Islamic values….”Nadine Marroushi, “Renaissance man: Gehad El Haddad works as the Islamist project’s pragmatist,” Egypt Independent, July 31, 2012, http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/renaissance-man-gehad-el-haddad-works-islamist-project-s-pragmatist.

Haddad comes from a family of Brotherhood members and sympathizers. Born in the early 1980s and raised in Alexandria, Egypt, Haddad is the son of Essam El-Haddad, a senior advisor on foreign affairs to former President Morsi. Between 2005 and 2006, Gehad El-Haddad studied strategic marketing and filmmaking in the United Kingdom, where he met and produced a television program with the Islamist Egyptian television personality Amr Khaled. According to Haddad, the program, Sunna al-Hayat, “was about drawing values from the Quran and connecting them with the type of social work that wealthy Egyptians could do to help their societies.”Nadine Marroushi, “Renaissance man: Gehad El Haddad works as the Islamist project’s pragmatist,” Egypt Independent, July 31, 2012, http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/renaissance-man-gehad-el-haddad-works-islamist-project-s-pragmatist. Haddad then worked for a multinational firm, but returned to Egypt in 2006-2007.Nadine Marroushi, “Renaissance man: Gehad El Haddad works as the Islamist project’s pragmatist,” Egypt Independent, July 31, 2012, http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/renaissance-man-gehad-el-haddad-works-islamist-project-s-pragmatist;
“Gehad El-Haddad,” Muslim Brotherhood Daily Watch, accessed February 24, 2017, https://www.globalmbwatch.com/gehad-el-haddad/. According to Haddad’s LinkedIn profile, he began working on the Brotherhood’s Renaissance Project in February 2012, and as the Brotherhood’s “senior adviser & media spokesperson” in January 2013.“Gehad El-Haddad,” LinkedIn profile, accessed February 24, 2017, https://www.linkedin.com/in/gelhaddad/.

In February 2017, the New York Times published an op-ed by Haddad in which he insisted that the Muslim Brotherhood was a purely peaceful organization, following “the values of social justice, equality and the rule of law.” The op-ed came amid increased pressure on the Trump administration to sanction-designate the Muslim Brotherhood under Executive order 13224. Haddad is in “solitary confinement in Egypt’s most notorious prison,” according to the op-ed.Gehad El-Haddad, “I Am a Member of the Muslim Brotherhood, Not a Terrorist,” February 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/22/opinion/i-am-a-member-of-the-muslim-brotherhood-not-a-terrorist.html?_r=0. Following the publication of Haddad’s op-ed, his family stated in May 2017, that Haddad was placed in a “punishment cell,” which has no ventilation, beds, toilets, or light.“UN Panel Presses Egypt for Immediate Release of Senior Muslim Brotherhood Figures,” Middle East Eye, October 24, 2019, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/un-panel-calls-immediate-release-essam-and-gehad-el-haddad-egypt.

A May 2018 Amnesty International report concluded that Haddad’s prison treatment amounts to torture given the time he spent in solitary confinement and other abuses he has been subjected to.“Egypt: End Gehad El-Haddad`s Solitary Confinement and Denial of Medical Care,” Amnesty International, May 28, 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/gehad-elhaddads-solitary-confinement-and-denial-of-medical-care/. Haddad had been in solitary confinement since September 2013.“Egypt: End Gehad El-Haddad`s Solitary Confinement and Denial of Medical Care,” Amnesty International, May 28, 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/gehad-elhaddads-solitary-confinement-and-denial-of-medical-care/.

Haddad was acquitted in September 2019 of espionage charges.Maged Mandour, “Egypt Behind Bars,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 11, 2020, https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/81045#_ftnref1. However, he remained in custody after new charges were brought against him.Maged Mandour, “Egypt Behind Bars,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 11, 2020, https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/81045#_ftnref1.

Khalil al-Hayya is a senior Hamas politician and the leader of Hamas’s armed wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades.“Khalil al-Hayya takes helm of Hamas's al-Qassam Brigades as hostage talks near ‘finish line,’” Jerusalem Post, December 26, 2024, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-834954. He was elected deputy leader of the group’s Gaza politburo in internal elections in February 2017.“Yehya al-Sinwar elected head of Hamas political bureau in Gaza, Khalil al-Hayya his deputy,” Middle East Observer, February 13, 2017, https://www.middleeastobserver.org/2017/02/13/31229yehya-al-sinwar-elected-head-of-hamas-political-bureau-in-gaza-khalil-al-hayya-his-deputy/. Before Hayya assumed the position of deputy leader, he served as head of Hamas’s parliamentary bloc in the Palestinian Legislative Council.Adnan Abu Amer, “Exclusive: Hamas Official Discusses Decline of Iranian Support,” Al-Monitor, June 23, 2013, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2013/06/hamas-interview-hayya-gaza-iran-hezbollah-support.html. In 2021, Hayya was re-elected as deputy chief of Gaza.“Mapping Palestinian Politics – Khalil al-Hayya,” European Council on Foreign Relations, accessed August 6, 2021, https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/khalil_al_hayya/; Reuters and Jerusalem Post staff, “Haniyeh reelected to lead Hamas in internal elections – report,” Jerusalem Post, August 1, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/haniyeh-reelected-to-lead-hamas-in-internal-elections-report-675521. In December 2024, Hayya was appointed commander of Hamas’s armed wing, the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, following the death of its longtime commander, Mohammed Deif, that summer.“Khalil al-Hayya takes helm of Hamas’s al-Qassam Brigades as hostage talks near ‘finish line,’” Jerusalem Post, December 26, 2024, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-834954.

Hayya has served as a senior figure in Hamas since at least 2006. That year—amid tension between Hamas and the West Bank-based Fatah—Hayya told a rally in Gaza City that Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas was “… launching [a war], first against God, and then against Hamas.”“Hamas and Fatah trade fire in power struggle,” Guardian, December 15, 2006, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/dec/15/israel1. In 2007, Hayya lost seven members of his family in an Israeli assassination.Adnan Abu Amer, “Exclusive: Hamas Official Discusses Decline of Iranian Support,” Al-Monitor, June 23, 2013, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2013/06/hamas-interview-hayya-gaza-iran-hezbollah-support.html.

Hayya’s views on Iran—specifically regarding to its funding of Hamas—have shifted over time. In a 2010 interview, Hayya told the website of Hamas’s military wing that “Iran supports [Hamas] financially, politically and morally,” without Hamas having to pay a “political price.”“An exclusive interview with Hamas leader Dr. Khalil Al Hayya,” Al-Qassam, January 22, 2010, http://www.qassam.ps/interview-2305-An_exclusive_interview_with_Hamas_leader_Dr_Khalil_Al_Hayya.html. In a 2013 interview with Al-Monitor, however, Hayya indicated that Iran’s funding of Hamas had declined because it had indeed come with a “political price,” whereas “Qatar, for example, plays a significant role in supporting the Palestinian cause…[and] this support does not come with any political price.” Hayya noted at the time that “[Hamas was] trying to find new alternatives that would compensate” for a shortage of funds.Adnan Abu Amer, “Exclusive: Hamas Official Discusses Decline of Iranian Support,” Al-Monitor, June 23, 2013, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/originals/2013/06/hamas-interview-hayya-gaza-iran-hezbollah-support.html.

In December 2016, Hayya attended a celebration commemorating the 29th anniversary of Hamas’s founding. During the event, he ceremoniously handed his grandchildren the sword of Hamas founder Ahmed Yassin, saying it was “the sword of da’wa, of liberation, and of victory,” and that it should be “[passed] down to the next generation of men, women, boys, and girls.”“Hamas MP Khalil Al-Hayya Hands His Grandchildren Ahmed Yassin's 'Sword of Liberation' in Ceremony Marking Organization's 29th Anniversary,” MMEMRI, December 14, 2016, https://www.memri.org/tv/hamas-mp-khalil-al-hayya-hands-his-grandchildren-ahmed-yassins-sword-liberation-ceremony-marking/transcript.

In February 2020, Hayya stated that Hamas and other Palestinian factions are working to undermine U.S. President Donald Trump’s proposed Israeli-Palestinian peace plan. The plan, unveiled in late January, maintained Jerusalem as Israel’s “undivided capital,” but provided for part of East Jerusalem to be the capital of a future Palestinian state. It also doubled Palestine’s territory but allowed the Israelis to maintain their West Bank settlements.“Trump Reveals Israeli-Palestinian Peace Plan,” Deutsche Welle, January 28, 2020, https://www.dw.com/en/trump-reveals-israeli-palestinian-peace-plan/a-52179629. Hayya also stated that “the deal is set to fail as long as it lacks Palestinian support.”“Hamas Decides Against Media War with Fatah,” Middle East Monitor, February 19, 2020, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200219-hamas-decides-against-media-war-with-fatah/.

On September 1, 2020, Hayya threatened Israel with more violence on the southern border if Israel does not uphold its end of a 2018 ceasefire bargain within two months. The 2018 agreement stipulated that Israel was to allow infrastructure projects and foreign aid into the Gaza Strip. Hayya blamed Israel’s failure to uphold the 2018 agreement as the reason for the August hostilities. Throughout August, Gaza-based militants launched rockets and incendiary balloons into Israel. Israel responded by conducting airstrikes against Hamas targets and the closure of the Kerem Shalom crossing into Gaza to construction materials and fuel. A Qatari-brokered ceasefire ended the violence, with Israel tacitly consenting to the agreement by removing the restrictions that they imposed on Gaza during August’s hostilities.Aaron Boxerman, “Hamas Deputy: We’ll Give Israel Two Months to Implement Ceasefire,” Times of Israel, September 1, 2020, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-deputy-well-give-israel-two-months-to-implement-ceasefire/.

In January 2021, Abbas announced the first Palestinian legislative elections since 2006 would take place later in the year. The Palestinian Authority also announced plans to hold presidential elections in the summer.Daoud Kuttab, “Agreement between Fatah and Hamas paves way for Palestine coalition,” Arab News, January 22, 2021, https://www.arabnews.com/node/1796886/middle-east. Hayya was named to the top of Hamas’s list of legislative candidates.Khaled Abu Toameh, “Hamas presents list of candidates for parliamentary election,” Jerusalem Post, March 29, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/hamas-presents-list-of-candidates-for-parliamentary-election-663540. Abbas indefinitely postponed the elections on April 29, citing Israel’s refusal to allow Palestinians in east Jerusalem to vote as the reason for the postponement. Local analysts suspected the delay was because Abbas feared a Hamas political victory.Adnan Abu Amer, “Hamas rallies opposition to Abbas after elections pushed back,” Al-Monitor, April 29, 2021, https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2021/05/hamas-rallies-opposition-abbas-after-elections-pushed-back; “Fatah intensifies efforts to postpone elections fearing a Hamas win,” Middle East Monitor, April 20, 2021, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210420-fatah-intensifies-efforts-to-postpone-elections-fearing-a-hamas-win/; “Hamas: Delaying election will affect future of Palestine reconciliation,” April 28, 2021, https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20210428-hamas-delaying-election-will-affect-future-of-palestine-reconciliation/.

In 2021, Hamas held secretive internal elections to select leaders in its political bureau.Reuters and Jerusalem Post staff, “Haniyeh reelected to lead Hamas in internal elections – report,” Jerusalem Post, August 1, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/haniyeh-reelected-to-lead-hamas-in-internal-elections-report-675521. Hayya was re-elected as Hamas’s deputy leader of Gaza for another four-year term.“Mapping Palestinian Politics – Khalil al-Hayya,” European Council on Foreign Relations, accessed August 6, 2021, https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/khalil_al_hayya/; Reuters and Jerusalem Post staff, “Haniyeh reelected to lead Hamas in internal elections – report,” Jerusalem Post, August 1, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/haniyeh-reelected-to-lead-hamas-in-internal-elections-report-675521. It is unclear when exactly Hayya’s election took place. Hamas began announcing its election results that March.Nidal Al-mughrabi, “Sinwar re-elected as Hamas chief in Gaza,” Reuters, March 10, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/sinwar-re-elected-hamas-chief-gaza-2021-03-10/.

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a mass attack on Israel, sending hundreds of fighters into Israeli towns and military bases within 15 miles of the Gaza border while simultaneously launching a rocket barrage toward Israel.Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2. Hamas labeled the attack Operation Al-Aqsa Flood.“Operation Al Aqsa Flood,” Hamas Online, Telegram, October 7, 2023. Following the attack, Israel issued an official declaration of war against Hamas and vowed to cripple the terrorist organization.Tia Goldenberg and Wafaa Shurafa, “Israel declares war, bombards Gaza and battles to dislodge Hamas fighters after surprise attack,” Associated Press, October 8, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-ca7903976387cfc1e1011ce9ea805a71. In a justification of the October 7 attack, Hayya told the New York Times that Hamas had sought to “change the entire equation and not just have a clash.”Ben Hubbard and Maria Abi-Habib, “Behind Hamas’s Bloody Gambit to Create a ‘Permanent’ State of War,” New York Times, last updated November 9, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/08/world/middleeast/hamas-israel-gaza-war.html. Hayya admitted to the newspaper that Hamas did not seek to govern Gaza or improve quality of life for its citizens. Instead, Hamas’s fight is “to completely overthrow the situation.”Ben Hubbard and Maria Abi-Habib, “Behind Hamas’s Bloody Gambit to Create a ‘Permanent’ State of War,” New York Times, last updated November 9, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/08/world/middleeast/hamas-israel-gaza-war.html. In other interviews, Hayya rejected Israeli accusations that Hamas placed military installations in or near Gaza’s hospitals. He accused Israel of “lying” to displace Palestinian civilians from Gaza.“Hamas rejects claims over using hospitals for resistance acts,” Mehr News Agency, November 21, 2023, https://en.mehrnews.com/news/208676/Hamas-rejects-claims-over-using-hospitals-for-resistance-acts.

The war continued through 2024 and into 2025. On July 13, 2024, an Israeli airstrike killed Qassam Brigades commander Mohammed Deif in the Gaza Strip.Nidal Al-Mughrabi, Hatem Khaled and Maayan Lubell, “Gaza officials say 90 Palestinians killed as Israel targets Hamas military chief,” Reuters, July 13, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/dozens-palestinians-killed-or-wounded-israeli-attack-khan-younis-hamas-says-2024-07-13/; Melanie Lidman and Samy Magdy, “Israel says it has confirmed that chief of Hamas’ military wing was killed in a July strike in Gaza,” Associated Press, August 1, 2024, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-war-mohammed-deif-9524d7d5c8f7321f4d8c931fde664556. On December 26, 2024, Hayya was appointed leader of the Qassam Brigades. A senior Hamas official told the U.K.-based Qatari news organization Al Araby Al Jadeed that the Qassam Brigades field leadership was committed to providing Hayya with full support.“Khalil al-Hayya takes helm of Hamas’s al-Qassam Brigades as hostage talks near ‘finish line,’” Jerusalem Post, December 26, 2024, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-834954.

Yahya Sinwar was an internationally designated senior Hamas leader with ties to the group’s political and military wings.“Terrorist Designations of Yahya Sinwar, Rawhi Mushtaha, and Muhammed Deif,” U.S. Department of State, September 8, 2015, https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/266520.htm;
Avi Issacharoff, “Top Hamas officer rumored killed by IDF,” Times of Israel, July 23, 2014, http://www.timesofisrael.com/top-hamas-officer-rumored-killed-by-idf/. In February 2017 internal elections, Hamas elected Sinwar as its political chief in the Gaza Strip. Sinwar replaced deputy Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh, who replaced outgoing Qatar-based leader Khaled Meshaal in May 2017.Fares Akram, “Hamas names shadowy militant as new leader in Gaza,” Associated Press, February 13, 2017, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/9854bb8c51b14fe29f52fb943c07c14a/hamas-names-top-militant-new-leader-gaza;
Rory Jones, “Hamas Puts Militant Yahya Sinwar in Charge of Gaza,” Wall Street Journal, February 13, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/hamas-puts-militant-yahya-sinwar-in-charge-of-gaza-1487001168;
“Ismail Haniyeh elected new political head of Hamas,” Times of Israel, May 6, 2017, https://www.timesofisrael.com/ismail-haniyeh-elected-new-head-of-hamas/. Sinwar was a founding member of the forerunner of the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, the military wing of Hamas.“Terrorist Designations of Yahya Sinwar, Rawhi Mushtaha, and Muhammed Deif,” U.S. Department of State, September 8, 2015, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/09/246686.htm. He also founded Hamas’s Majd intelligence service, which targets alleged collaborators with Israel.Dov Lieber, “Hamas elects convicted murderer Yahya Sinwar as Gaza chief,” Times of Israel, February 13, 2017, http://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-elects-hardliner-yahya-sinwar-as-gaza-chief/;
“Yahya Sinwar elected as new head of Hamas politburo in Gaza,” Ma’an News Agency, last updated February 14, 2017, https://www.maannews.com/Content.aspx?id=775451. Sinwar won re-election as Gaza’s political leader on March 10, 2021.Nidal al-Mughrabi, “Sinwar re-elected as Hamas chief in Gaza,” Reuters, March 10, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN2B2259. Sinwar was accused of helping to orchestrate Hamas’s widescale attack on Israel on October 7, 2023, which resulted in the deaths of at least 1,200 people and the capture of approximately 240 civilian and military hostages.Summer Goodkind, “Top Hamas military commander claims October 7 attacks were never meant to target Israeli civilians as he breaks ranks to criticise terror group’s leaders ‘who changed the plan last-minute’ in extraordinary intervention,” Daily Mail (London), November 5, 2023, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12712397/Top-Hamas-military-commander-claims-October-7-attacks-never-meant-target-Israeli-civilians-breaks-ranks-criticise-terror-groups-exiled-leaders-changed-plan-minute-extraordinary-intervention.html; “Israel revises Hamas attack death toll to ‘around 1,200,’” Reuters, November 10, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-revises-death-toll-oct-7-hamas-attack-around-1200-2023-11-10/. Israeli leaders vowed to kill Sinwar for his role in the attack.James Reynolds, “Israel vows to kill Hamas’s ‘Bin Laden’ who orchestrated October 7 attack - as Netanyahu labels him a ‘little Hitler in his bunker,’” Daily Mail (London), November 6, 2023, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12715503/Israel-vows-kill-Hamass-Bin-Laden-orchestrated-October-7-attack-Netanyahu-labels-little-Hitler-bunker.html. On August 6, 2024, Hamas announced Sinwar as the new chair of its political bureau following Haniyeh’s July 31 assassination.“Hamas names Oct 7 mastermind Sinwar as leader after Haniyeh assassination,” Reuters, August 6, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-names-gaza-leader-yahya-sinwar-chief-following-haniyeh-killing-statement-2024-08-06/. Sinwar’s new role was short lived. On October 16, 2024, Sinwar was killed during an Israeli military operation in the Gaza Strip.Greg Norman, Ruth Marks Eglash, Efrat Lachter, “Hamas terror leader Yahya Sinwar killed in Gaza, Israeli official says,” Fox News, October 17, 2024, https://www.foxnews.com/world/idf-investigating-whether-hamas-chief-yahya-sinwar-killed-gaza-operations; Loveday Morris, “Yahya Sinwar, architect of Hamas massacre in Israel, is killed,” Washington Post, October 17, 2024, https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2024/10/17/sinwar-hamas-gaza-dies/.

Sinwar was arrested by Israeli authorities in 1988 for murdering Palestinian collaborators with Israel, and for his role in the capture and murder of two Israeli soldiers. He was sentenced in 1989 to four life sentences, and released in October 2011 as part of a swap of 1,000 Hamas prisoners for kidnapped Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit. Sinwar was one of the highest-ranking Hamas operatives to be released.“Terrorist Designations of Yahya Sinwar, Rawhi Mushtaha, and Muhammed Deif,” U.S. Department of State, September 8, 2015, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2015/09/246686.htm;
Fares Akram, “Hamas names shadowy militant as new leader in Gaza,” Associated Press, February 13, 2017, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/9854bb8c51b14fe29f52fb943c07c14a/hamas-names-top-militant-new-leader-gaza. Following his release, Sinwar told Hamas media that the group should “kidnap more soldiers to exchange them for the freedom of our loved ones who are still behind bars.”Christina Boyle and Corky Siemaszko, “Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit freed, reunites with family after five years as Hamas prisoner,” New York Daily News, October 19, 2011, http://www.nydailynews.com/news/world/israeli-soldier-gilad-shalit-freed-reunites-family-years-hamas-prisoner-article-1.964822. While in prison, Sinwar was diagnosed with a cancerous brain tumor. In 2004, he was reportedly taken to the Soroka Medical Center in Beersheba, Israel, where doctors operated and removed the tumor.Ethan Bronner and Henry Meyer, “Hamas Chief Who Deceived Israel Is Target No. 1 Deep Underground,” Bloomberg News, November 16, 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-11-16/hamas-chief-hiding-in-gaza-tunnels-is-in-israeli-crosshairs; Stephen Farrell and Samia Nakhoul, “Hamas leader Sinwar plotted Israel’s most deadly day in plain sight,” Reuters, December 6, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hiding-plain-sight-hamas-leader-sinwar-plotted-destruction-2023-12-01/.

Sinwar joined Hamas’s political bureau in April 2013.“Hamas elections exclude Zahhar, Rishq,” Ma’an News Agency, last updated April 8, 2013, http://www.maannews.com/Content.aspx?id=582542. By early 2016, he had orchestrated power shifts within Hamas’s Gaza-based leadership—causing Meshaal to reportedly struggle to maintain authority. Sinwar has advocated closer ties with Iran, which has continued to fund the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades despite cutting funding to Hamas as a whole. In late 2016, Meshaal called for a suspension of smuggling beneath the Gaza-Egypt border as Hamas moved to reconcile with Egypt. In opposition to Hamas’s political leadership, Sinwar and the Qassam Brigades have continued their tunneling activities and coordination with ISIS’s affiliate in the Sinai, Wilayat Sinai.Avi Issacharoff, “Inside Hamas, a bitter and very personal battle for control,” Times of Israel, March 19, 2016, http://www.timesofisrael.com/inside-hamas-a-bitter-and-very-personal-battle-for-control/;
Avi Issacharoff, “Rising new Hamas leader is all too familiar to Israel,” Times of Israel, December 18, 2015, http://www.timesofisrael.com/rising-new-hamas-leader-is-all-too-familiar-to-israel/.

Palestinian political observers told the Wall Street Journal in February 2017 that Sinwar’s political ascendance represented the failure of Hamas’s political leadership to promote its agenda over that of the military wing.Rory Jones, “Hamas Puts Militant Yahya Sinwar in Charge of Gaza,” Wall Street Journal, February 13, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/hamas-puts-militant-yahya-sinwar-in-charge-of-gaza-1487001168. Kobi Michael, a former head of the Palestinian Desk at Israel’s Ministry for Strategic Affairs, told the Associated Press that Sinwar represented “one of the most radical and extreme lines of Hamas.”Fares Akram, “Hamas names shadowy militant as new leader in Gaza,” Associated Press, February 13, 2017, http://bigstory.ap.org/article/9854bb8c51b14fe29f52fb943c07c14a/hamas-names-top-militant-new-leader-gaza. Sinwar was designated by the U.S. Department of State in September 2015.“Terrorist Designations of Yahya Sinwar, Rawhi Mushtaha, and Muhammed Deif,” U.S. Department of State, September 8, 2015, https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/des/266520.htm. The United Kingdom designated Sinwar on November 14, 2023.“CONSOLIDATED LIST OF FINANCIAL SANCTIONS TARGETS IN THE UK,” Office of Financial Sanctions Implementation  HM Treasury, last updated December 11, 2023, https://ofsistorage.blob.core.windows.net/publishlive/2022format/ConList.html.

On December 1, 2020, Hamas announced that Sinwar tested positive for COVID-19. The statement asserted that he was “fine and in good health,” and was “working normally according to safety protocols and medical quarantine.”Aaron Boxerman, “Yahya Sinwar, Head of Hamas in Gaza, Tests Positive for COVID-19,” Times of Israel, December 1, 2020, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-gaza-chief-yahya-sinwar-tests-positive-for-covid-19/.

On February 2, 2021, members of Hamas’s leadership, including Sinwar, met with the chairman of Qatar’s Gaza Reconstruction Committee, Ambassador Mohammed al-Emadi, in Gaza. Hamas thanked Qatar for providing a $360 million grant to the Gaza Strip for 2021.“Hamas Thanks Amir for Qatar’s Generous Support to Gaza,” Peninsula, February 3, 2021, https://thepeninsulaqatar.com/article/03/02/2021/Hamas-thanks-Amir-for-Qatar%E2%80%99s-generous-support-to-Gaza; “Hamas Thanks Amir for Qatar's Support to Palestinians,” Gulf Times, February 2, 2021, https://www.gulf-times.com/story/683806/Hamas-thanks-Amir-for-Qatar-s-generous-support-to-Palestinian-people.

In March 2021, Sinwar ran for reelection as Gaza’s political leader in a secretive internal Hamas election against Mahmoud Zahar, Fathi Hammad, Ziyad al-Thatha, and Nizar Awadallah. On March 9, reports emanated from Gaza that Sinwar had lost the election to Awadallah, the former head of Hamas’s advisory Shura Council. However, some Palestinian sources told Israeli media that the vote was not final, and a second round would take place.Agence France-Presse, “Hamas To Pick New Gaza Chief This Week: Party Sources,” Barron’s, March 9, 2021, https://www.barrons.com/news/hamas-to-pick-new-gaza-chief-this-week-party-sources-01615298711?tesla=y; Khaled Abu Toameh, “Hamas leader Sinwar ousted in secret vote - report,” Jerusalem Post, March 9, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/hamas-elects-new-leader-in-gaza-661454. On March 10, Sinwar won re-election in a runoff vote.Nidal al-Mughrabi, “Sinwar re-elected as Hamas chief in Gaza,” Reuters, March 10, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSKBN2B2259.

Early on May 16, 2021, Israel airstrikes targeted Sinwar’s home in Khan Younis. According to a spokesperson from the Israel Defense Forces (IDF), Sinwar was unharmed. The strikes occurred after a week of Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad rocket attacks on Israeli cities and Israeli retaliatory strikes against Gaza.Ibrahim Dahman, Abeer Salman, Kareem Khadder, Mohammad Tawfeeq, Ben Wedeman, and Hadas Gold, “Israeli strikes hit home in Gaza refugee camp, media offices as conflict intensifies,” CNN, last updated May 16, 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/05/15/middleeast/israel-palestinian-conflict-intl/index.html. On May 17, Eliezer Toledano, the head of the IDF Southern Command—who also holds a critical role in managing the battle against Hamas—stated that Sinwar could still be targeted by Israeli strikes. According to Toledano, Sinwar and the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades head, Mohammed Deif, remain in “Israel’s sights” as IDF troops will continue to go after Hamas fighters and leaders by targeting their “underground lairs until the end of fighting.”“Top IDF general says Hamas chiefs Deif and Sinwar ‘remain in Israel’s sights,’” Times of Israel, May 17, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/top-general-says-idf-will-continue-to-try-kill-hamas-senior-leaders/. A ceasefire between Hamas and Israel went into effect on May 21 after 11 days of fighting, during which Hamas and PIJ launched more than 4,000 rockets at Israel. On May 22, Hamas held a military parade in Gaza City to celebrate its perceived victory, Sinwar made his first public appearance since the start of the conflict, visiting the family of Hamas commander Bassem Issa, who was killed during the fighting. A senior Hamas commander told Israeli media a new round of fighting would begin if Israel targeted either Sinwar or Deif.Wafaa Shurafa and Samy Magdy, “Hamas defiant with military parade, appearance of top leader,” Associated Press, May 22, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/hamas-israel-middle-east-health-coronavirus-pandemic-6ea82ef3966ccd0cee3dce815730d130; “Hamas’s Sinwar emerges to claim victory; group warns against hits on leaders,” Times of Israel, May 22, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamass-sinwar-emerges-to-claim-victory-group-warns-against-hits-on-leaders/.

In early May 2022, following a string of terror attacks in Israel that killed at least 19 people since that March, rumors circulated that Israel would specifically target Sinwar. Hamas claimed responsibility for an April 29 attack that killed a security guard at the West Bank settlement of Ariel. In an April 30 speech in Gaza, Sinwar called on Palestinians to ready their rifles or—if they did not have guns—cleavers, axes, and knives. Israel’s Channel 12 news station reported Israeli diplomatic and security officials had relayed a message to Sinwar that his calls to violence and the Ariel attack would allow Israel the freedom to respond militarily in Gaza. According to Israeli media, the Israelis also labeled Sinwar a “terror supporter” and warned he would be dealt with as appropriate. On May 5, As’ad Yousef As’ad al-Rifa’i and Subhi Emad Subhi Abu Shqeir killed three and wounded seven others with an axe and a knife in the Israeli city of Elad. The attack came after Israel’s warning to Sinwar, prompting media suspicion Sinwar’s speech may have influenced Rifa’i and Abu Shqeir. Hamas did not claim credit for the attack, nor were either attacker reported as members of Hamas.“Israel said to threaten Hamas chief Sinwar as calls for his head grow louder,” Times of Israel, May 6, 2022, https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-said-to-threaten-action-against-hamas-chief-sinwar-over-terror-cheerleading/. The following week, the Times of London reported Israeli officials had told foreign allies the Jewish state would restart targeted killings of Hamas leaders abroad if such attacks continued. The Times speculated Israel would target West Bank leader Saleh al-Arouri and Zaher Jabarin, responsible for financing Hamas’s international networks.Anshel Pfeffer, “Israel ‘will assassinate Hamas leaders if terror attacks continue,’” Times (London), May 8, 2022, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/israel-will-assassinate-hamas-leaders-if-terror-attacks-continue-m7xc9cnln. On May 7, the Hezbollah-affiliated Al-Mayadeen TV station reported Palestinian terror groups had threatened to resume terror attacks inside Israel if Israel begins targeting Palestinian militant leaders.Khaled Abu Toameh, “Terror groups threaten rocket strikes if Israel resumes targeted killings,” Jerusalem Post, last updated May 8, 2022, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-706080.

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a mass attack on Israel, sending hundreds of fighters across the border into Israeli towns and military bases within 15 miles of the Gaza border while simultaneously launching a rocket barrage toward Israel.Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2. Hamas labeled the attack Operation Al-Aqsa Flood. “Operation Al Aqsa Flood,” Hamas Online Telegram channel, October 7, 2023. Written orders recovered from the bodies of dead Hamas fighters as well as video testimonials of Hamas attackers showed that Hamas fighters had been directed to kill as many people as possible. These orders contradicted statements from Hamas leaders that the terrorist group targeted only soldiers.Dov Lieber and David S. Cloud, “Hamas Fighters’ Orders: ‘Kill as Many People as Possible,’” Wall Street Journal, October 14, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/hamas-fighters-orders-kill-as-many-people-as-possible-2a6abff8. Hamas killed approximately 1,200 Israelis in the attack and took hostage at least 240 Israeli civilians and soldiers in Gaza.Peter Saidel and Dov Lieber, “Hamas Took More Than 200 Hostages From Israel. Here’s What to Know.,” Wall Street Journal, November 6, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/hamas-hostages-israel-gaza-41432124; “Israel revises Hamas attack death toll to ‘around 1,200,’” Reuters, November 10, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-revises-death-toll-oct-7-hamas-attack-around-1200-2023-11-10/. Israel declared war on Hamas and launched an assault on Gaza to uproot the terrorist group.Eyad Kourdi and Jonny Hallam, “Hamas claims to be holding more than 100 hostages, including Israeli army officers,” CNN, October 8, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/israel-hamas-gaza-attack-10-08-23/h_97798904006dac1bcebd4ec84e359b33. Israel’s military leaders named Sinwar, Deif, and deputy military leader Marwan Issa as their most wanted in Gaza, warning all three were on a kill list. Israel accused the three of forming a military council that planned and executed the October 7 attack.“Samia Nakhoul, James Mackenzie and Phil Stewart, “Insight: Israel’s most wanted: the three Hamas leaders in Gaza it aims to kill,” Reuters, December 1, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israels-most-wanted-three-hamas-commanders-gaza-it-must-kill-2023-12-01/.

As Israeli forces struck Hamas forces across the Gaza Strip, officials declared Sinwar to be a top military target. Unconfirmed reports claimed Israeli airstrikes destroyed Sinwar’s home in Gaza.Emanuel Fabian, “IDF said to hit Gaza home of Hamas chief Yahya Sinwar amid terror group assault,” Times of Israel, October 7, 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/idf-said-to-hit-gaza-home-of-hamas-chief-yahya-sinwar-amid-terror-group-assault/. IDF spokesman Lieutenant Colonel Richard Hecht accused Sinwar of masterminding the October 7 attack, likening him to Osama bin Laden. Hecht announced that Sinwar was an IDF target and labeled him “the face of evil.”Matthew Rosenberg, “Yahya Sinwar, Hamas’s Leader in Gaza, Is at the Top of Israel’s Target List,” New York Times, last updated October 17, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/16/world/middleeast/hamas-leader-yehya-sinwar-gaza-israel.html. On October 9, IDF spokesman Rear Admiral Daniel Hagari labeled Sinwar “the commander of the campaign” and declared that Sinwar “is a dead man.”Emanuel Fabian, “Hamas leader Sinwar ‘is a dead man,’ IDF spokesman threatens,” Times of Israel, October 9, 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hamas-leader-sinwar-is-a-dead-man-idf-spokesman-threatens/. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu referred to Sinwar as “little Hitler in his bunker” with “no care for his people.”James Reynolds, “Israel vows to kill Hamas’s ‘Bin Laden’ who orchestrated October 7 attack - as Netanyahu labels him a ‘little Hitler in his bunker,’” Daily Mail (London), November 6, 2023, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12715503/Israel-vows-kill-Hamass-Bin-Laden-orchestrated-October-7-attack-Netanyahu-labels-little-Hitler-bunker.html.

In January 2024, the British newspaper Asharq al-Awsat reported that Sinwar coordinated the October 7 attack with his brother Muhammad Sinwar, Deif, Rouhi Mushtaha, and Ayman Nofal. They reportedly chose the date of October 7 because of reports of calm along the border. They confirmed their plans on October 6 and waited until midnight that night to begin the attack with 70 fighters from elite Hamas units who were trained in infiltrating Israeli settlements. Palestinian sources told the newspaper that Hamas’s political leaders in Qatar were not informed of the attack until hours beforehand, when they received a briefing and instructions to go into hiding. The political leaders were reportedly not given details of the pending attack. After the first hour and a half, Hamas mobilized elite units within the Qassam Brigades to support the initial attackers.“‘Al-Aqsa Flood’ : Initiated by 70 Elite Fighters, Crafted by 5 Hamas Leaders,” Asharq al-Awsat (London), January 10, 2024, https://english.aawsat.com/arab-world/4780421-%E2%80%98al-aqsa-flood%E2%80%99-initiated-70-elite-fighters-crafted-5-hamas-leaders.

On November 5, the United Kingdom’s Daily Mail newspaper published an interview with a senior Hamas commander who accused Sinwar and fellow Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh of changing the plan for October 7 at the last minute and inviting a devastating Israeli retaliation. According to the battalion commander, who identified himself only as Abu Mohammed, Hamas had originally planned only to kill Israeli soldiers and take some soldiers hostage. They had not planned to kill civilians. Abu Mohammed said he was one of the planners of October 7, but Haniyeh and Sinwar changed the plan and told fighters to “do what they like.”Summer Goodkind, “Top Hamas military commander claims October 7 attacks were never meant to target Israeli civilians as he breaks ranks to criticise terror group’s leaders ‘who changed the plan last-minute’ in extraordinary intervention,” Daily Mail (London), November 5, 2023, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12712397/Top-Hamas-military-commander-claims-October-7-attacks-never-meant-target-Israeli-civilians-breaks-ranks-criticise-terror-groups-exiled-leaders-changed-plan-minute-extraordinary-intervention.html. Abu Mohammed accused Sinwar of acting like a “street fighter,” while the Hamas leadership abroad did not bear the consequences for October 7 like the people of Gaza did.Summer Goodkind, “Top Hamas military commander claims October 7 attacks were never meant to target Israeli civilians as he breaks ranks to criticise terror group’s leaders ‘who changed the plan last-minute’ in extraordinary intervention,” Daily Mail (London), November 5, 2023, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12712397/Top-Hamas-military-commander-claims-October-7-attacks-never-meant-target-Israeli-civilians-breaks-ranks-criticise-terror-groups-exiled-leaders-changed-plan-minute-extraordinary-intervention.html. During interrogation in Israeli custody that December, former Hamas communications minister Yousef al-Mansi accused Sinwar and the Hamas leadership of setting Gaza back 200 years. In footage of the interrogation released by Israel’s Shin Bet security service on December 10, Mansi said, “People in the Gaza Strip say that Sinwar and his group destroyed us, we must get rid of them.”Emanuel Fabian and Michael Horovitz, “Ex-Hamas minister in interrogation: ‘Crazy people’ led by Sinwar ‘destroyed Gaza,’” Times of Israel, December 10, 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/ex-hamas-minister-in-interrogation-crazy-people-led-by-sinwar-destroyed-gaza/. Mansi further accused Sinwar of “delusions of grandeur” and making decisions without consulting others.Emanuel Fabian and Michael Horovitz, “Ex-Hamas minister in interrogation: ‘Crazy people’ led by Sinwar ‘destroyed Gaza,’” Times of Israel, December 10, 2023, https://www.timesofisrael.com/ex-hamas-minister-in-interrogation-crazy-people-led-by-sinwar-destroyed-gaza/.

Citing Palestinian sources, a March 2024 report by Sky News Arabia claimed the Hamas leadership had criticized Sinwar for launching the October 7 attack without prior consultation with Hamas’s political leaders. Sinwar reportedly consulted with his brother Muhammad Sinwar, Deif, and Issa. The four had not consulted the rest of the Hamas leadership and its political bureau, who were ignorant of the decision.“Yahya Sinwar decided to launch October 7 attack alone, angering Hamas leaders – report,” Jerusalem Post, March 5, 2024, https://www.jpost.com/israel-hamas-war/article-790331.

Following the October 7 attacks, Israel launched a manhunt for Sinwar. On November 4, Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant vowed to kill Sinwar.Maayan Jaffe-Hoffman, Seth J. Frantzman, and staff, “Israel vows to eliminate Hamas terror leader Yahya Sinwar,” Jerusalem Post, last updated November 5, 2023, https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-771715. On November 7, Israel announced a four-hour window for civilians to evacuate Gaza City before its forces entered the city later that day. Gallant also announced that Sinwar was in the Gaza City vicinity in an underground bunker.Shannon Vavra, “Israel Has Trapped Senior Hamas Leader in a Bunker: Defense Minister,” Daily Beast, November 7, 2023, https://www.thedailybeast.com/israeli-defense-forces-storm-gaza-city-in-full-ground-invasion. A December 9 Israeli news report claimed Sinwar had fled northern Gaza in an IDF humanitarian convoy to Khan Younis during the beginning of the war. Israeli army sources told the Jerusalem Post that captured Hamas terrorists had accused Sinwar and other Hamas leaders of not caring about the people living in the coastal strip and denying reality.“Hamas's Yahya Sinwar fled northern Gaza in IDF humanitarian convoy,” Jerusalem Post, last updated December 10, 2023, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-777371. By December 10, Israeli forces were focusing on the areas of Jabaliya and Shajaiye in northern Gaza, and Khan Younis in southern Gaza. Israel had taken control of the area surrounding Hamas’s former headquarters in Gaza City. Tzahi Hanegbi, director of Israel’s national security council, rejected suggestions Sinwar and other Hamas leaders could be sent into exile like Yasser Arafat and the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization were exiled from Lebanon in the 1980s. Hanegbi reaffirmed that Israel’s intention was to kill Sinwar as a message to Hamas’s future leadership.“Israel says it will continue to search for Hamas’s leader.,” New York Times, December 11, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/12/11/world/israel-hamas-gaza-war-news/israel-says-it-will-continue-to-search-for-hamass-leader?smid=url-share.

Over the weekend of March 9-10, 2024, Israeli warplanes killed Issa in a building in the Nuseirat refugee camp in central Gaza. Issa represented the highest-level Hamas death since the start of the Hamas-Israel war in October 2023. According to Jake Sullivan, national security adviser to U.S. President Joe Biden, the United States would help Israel locate other Hamas leaders and “justice will come for them too.”Adam Rasgon, “Israel Says It Targeted Marwan Issa, a Top Hamas Leader in Gaza,” New York Times, March 11, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/11/world/middleeast/israel-strike-marwan-issa-hamas.html; Ellen Mitchell, “Top Hamas commander killed in Israeli airstrike: White House,” Hill, March 18, 2024, https://thehill.com/policy/defense/4539947-top-hamas-commander-killed-in-israeli-airstrike-white-house/. Sullivan claimed Hamas’s Gaza leadership likely remained in hiding in Gaza’s underground tunnel network.Ellen Mitchell, “Top Hamas commander killed in Israeli airstrike: White House,” Hill, March 18, 2024, https://thehill.com/policy/defense/4539947-top-hamas-commander-killed-in-israeli-airstrike-white-house/.

Despite Sinwar’s international designations and his role in the October 7 attack, an English translation of a book he authored appeared on the merchant website Amazon in April 2024. Titled The Thorn and the Carnation Part 1, the book is a fictional novel about the Palestinian struggle against Israel. Sinwar wrote the book during his previous incarceration in Israel.“The Thorn and the Carnation Paperback – December 2, 2023,” Amazon, accessed April 12, 2024, https://www.amazon.com/Thorn-Carnation-Yahya-Al-Sinwar/dp/B0CPCPLQZX. Attorneys for the International Legal Forum sent a letter to Amazon owner and CEO Jeff Bezos demanding the book’s removal as the book violated Amazon’s own policies prohibiting the marketing of offensive content. The attorneys also warned that selling the book could expose Amazon to U.S. anti-terrorism laws. Amazon reportedly agreed to remove the book as of April 11.Ariel Kahana, “Following Israel Hayom publication, Yahya Sinwar's book removed from Amazon,” Israel Hayom, April 11, 2024, https://www.israelhayom.com/2024/04/11/following-israel-hayom-publication-yahya-sinwars-book-removed-from-amazon/. Nonetheless, the book remained online as of April 12.“The Thorn and the Carnation Paperback – December 2, 2023,” Amazon, accessed April 12, 2024, https://www.amazon.com/Thorn-Carnation-Yahya-Al-Sinwar/dp/B0CPCPLQZX.

Backed by the United States, Qatar and Egypt have continued to push for ceasefire discussions. On March 7, 2024, Hamas withdrew from discussions after Sinwar demanded Israel commit to discussing a permanent end to the war. Haniyeh reportedly favored a six-week pause in fighting. According to Egyptian officials cited by the Wall Street Journal, Sinwar believed Hamas had an advantage over Israel because of growing political divisions in Israel.Summer Said, Margherita Stancati, and Anat Peled, “Hamas Leaves Gaza Talks With No Cease-Fire Deal,” Wall Street Journal, March 7, 2024, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/hamas-leaves-gaza-talks-with-no-cease-fire-deal-f9ec1ba8.

On July 31, 2024, Haniyeh was killed in his Tehran, Iran, guesthouse in what Hamas called a “treacherous Zionist raid on his residence in Tehran.”“Hamas chief Ismail Haniyeh killed in Iran, Hamas says in statement,” Reuters, July 30, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-chief-ismail-haniyeh-killed-iran-hamas-says-statement-2024-07-31/. Haniyeh was in Tehran for the July 30 inauguration of the country’s new president, Masoud Pezeshkian.Abby Sewell, “Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh is assassinated in Tehran,” Associated Press, last updated July 30, 2024, https://apnews.com/article/iran-hamas-israel-30968a7acb31cd8b259de9650014b779. Reuters initially reported on July 31 that Hamas had selected Meshaal to succeed Haniyeh.Nidal Al-Mughrabi, “Khaled Meshaal, who survived Israeli assassination attempt, tipped to be new Hamas leader,” Reuters, July 31, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/khaled-meshaal-who-survived-israeli-assassination-attempt-tipped-be-new-hamas-2024-07-31/. On August 6, Hamas officially named Sinwar as Haniyeh’s replacement. Meshaal endorsed Sinwar “in loyalty to Gaza and its people, who are waging the battle of the Flood of Al-Aqsa.”“Hamas names Oct 7 mastermind Sinwar as leader after Haniyeh assassination,” Reuters, August 6, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-names-gaza-leader-yahya-sinwar-chief-following-haniyeh-killing-statement-2024-08-06/. In response to the news, Hamas fighters in Gaza launched a salvo of rockets. An unnamed senior Hamas official told Agence France-Presse that Sinwar’s selection was “a strong message to the occupation (Israel) that Hamas continues its path of resistance.”Agence France-Presse, “Hamas official to AFP: Sinwar’s selection as new leader sends ‘strong message of resistance,’” Times of Israel, August 6, 2024, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/hamas-official-to-afp-sinwars-selection-as-new-leader-sends-strong-message-of-resistance/.

On February 1, 2024, the U.S. Department of Justice issued an indictment charging Sinwar and five other senior Hamas leaders with terrorism charges related to October 7. According to the indictment, the six leaders played central roles in planning, supporting, and perpetrating Hamas’s terrorist atrocities of October 7. In addition to Sinwar, the indictment charged Deif, Issa, Haniyeh, Meshaal, and Ali Baraka. The complaint specifically charged the six with conspiracy to murder U.S. citizens, conspiracy to finance terrorism, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction resulting in death, and conspiracy to support terrorism resulting in death. The complaint cited Hamas terrorist acts dating back to 1996. According to the Justice Department, the indictment was kept under seal to prevent Haniyeh and others from going into hiding. The Justice Department unsealed the indictment on September 3, 2024, after determining there was no longer sufficient reason to keep the indictment sealed after Haniyeh’s death that July.“Justice Department Announces Terrorism Charges Against Senior Leaders of Hamas,” U.S. Department of Justice, September 3, 2024, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-announces-terrorism-charges-against-senior-leaders-hamas.

Some Israeli officials suspected Sinwar was hiding in the Rafah area of Gaza along the Egyptian border.Steve Hendrix, Claire Parker, and Miriam Berger, “Standoff over Rafah assault tests Israel’s most important alliances,” Washington Post, February 15, 2024, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/02/15/israel-rafah-gaza-war-displaced/. On February 26, 2024, the Washington Post reported that the IDF believed Sinwar was hiding in a tunnel network beneath southern Gaza’s Khan Younis area. According to Israeli sources, Sinwar surrounded himself with a human shield of hostages to deter Israeli attempts to capture or kill him. Israeli officials told the Washington Post that the war in Gaza could not end until Sinwar is captured, killed, or no longer able to run Hamas’s operations.Shane Harris, “Hamas leader hiding in Gaza, but killing him risks hostages, officials say,” Washington Post, February 26, 2024, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2024/02/26/sinwar-hamas-tunnels-israel-gaza/.

As of August 2024, the IDF reportedly suspected that Sinwar was hiding in Rafah, having observed people moving around the area with their faces covered, signaling that they were either senior Hamas officials or hostages. In September, Israeli forces discovered Sinwar’s DNA in urine collected from the tunnel complex beneath Rafah’s Tel al-Sultan neighborhood. It was the same complex in which the bodies of six dead Israeli hostages had been recovered on August 31.Mark Mazzetti, Natan Odenheimer, Aaron Boxerman, Ronen Bergman, and Adam Goldman, “Sinwar’s Final Moments: On the Run, Hurt, Alone, but Still Defiant,” New York Times, last updated October 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/18/world/middleeast/yahya-sinwar-final-moments-gaza.html.

Sinwar died during an Israeli operation in Gaza on October 16, 2024. A group of Israeli soldiers on a routine patrol in Rafah’s Tel al-Sultan neighborhood witnessed three suspected terrorists moving from house to house, one man following behind the other two. An ensuing firefight left one of the soldiers wounded and the two terrorists dead.  The soldiers then sent a drone into an adjacent house where the third man had hidden. The drone recorded a wounded man sitting in a chair with his face covered with a keffiyeh. The man threw a stick toward the drone, and an Israeli sniper then shot the man while a tank fired a shell at the building. Israeli forces recovered the body and confirmed Sinwar’s identity after DNA and dental testing. On October 17, Netanyahu publicly confirmed Sinwar’s death, calling it “the sunset of Hamas’s evil reign” in Gaza.Mark Mazzetti, Natan Odenheimer, Aaron Boxerman, Ronen Bergman, and Adam Goldman, “Sinwar’s Final Moments: On the Run, Hurt, Alone, but Still Defiant,” New York Times, last updated October 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/18/world/middleeast/yahya-sinwar-final-moments-gaza.html. U.S. President Joe Biden issued a statement calling Sinwar’s death “a good day for Israel, for the United States, and for the world.”“Statement from President Joe Biden on the Death of Yahya Sinwar,” White House, October 17, 2024, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2024/10/17/statement-from-president-joe-biden-on-the-death-of-yahya-sinwar/. An October 18 Hamas statement claimed that Sinwar’s death would “only increase the strength, steadfastness, and determination” of Hamas’s fighters “to continue on their path, and to be loyal to their blood and sacrifices.”Mark Mazzetti, Natan Odenheimer, Aaron Boxerman, Ronen Bergman, and Adam Goldman, “Sinwar’s Final Moments: On the Run, Hurt, Alone, but Still Defiant,” New York Times, last updated October 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/10/18/world/middleeast/yahya-sinwar-final-moments-gaza.html. A Hamas statement on Telegram confirmed Sinwar’s death, calling him one of the “great martyr leaders.” The group further vowed to continue a “comprehensive” fight for the “return and the establishment of the Palestinian state on the entire Palestinian national soil with Jerusalem as its capital.”“Hamas leadership declares mourning,” NBC News, October 18, 2023, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/live-blog/live-updates-hamas-leader-yahya-sinwar-possibly-killed-gaza-rcna175922. On October 19, Iranian Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei called Sinwar’s death “undoubtedly painful for the Axis of Resistance,” but he pledged that “Hamas is alive and will remain alive.”“Iran’s supreme leader says Hamas leader’s death will not halt ‘Axis of Resistance,’” Reuters, October 19, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/irans-supreme-leader-says-hamas-leaders-death-will-not-halt-axis-resistance-2024-10-19/.