Mamman Nur was a key member of Boko Haram who went on to lead a faction that was endorsed by ISIS in 2016.Idayat Hassan, “The danger of a better-behaved Boko Haram,” IRIN, August 21, 2018, https://www.irinnews.org/opinion/2018/08/21/opinion-nigeria-militancy-peace-boko-haram. On August 21, 2018—shortly after Nur released 104 of the 110 Dapchi schoolgirls abducted in February 2018 without demanding ransom—Nur was reportedly killed by subordinates who disagreed with his “soft” approach to the group’s operations.Ehichioya Ezomon, “Dapchi girls and ransom payment: So what?,” The Oracle,  August 24, 2018, https://oraclenews.ng/dapchi-girls-and-ransom-payment-so-what/; “Boko Haram Leader Mamman Nur ‘Killed By His Closest Lieutenants’ For Releasing Dapchi Girls,” Sahara Reporters, September 14, 2018, http://saharareporters.com/2018/09/14/boko-haram-leader-mamman-nur-killed-his-closest-lieutenants-releasing-dapchi-girls. Nur is believed to have masterminded the August 2011 suicide bombing that killed 21 people at the United Nations headquarters in Abuja, the capital of Nigeria.Senan Murray and Adam Nossiter, “Suicide Bomber Attacks U.N. Building in Nigeria,” The New York Times, August 26, 2011, https://www.nytimes.com/2011/08/27/world/africa/27nigeria.html; Jacob Zenn, “Leadership Analysis of Boko Haram and Ansaru in Nigeria,” Combating Terrorism Centre at West Point, February 24, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/leadership-analysis-of-boko-haram-and-ansaru-in-nigeria. Nur was designated as a terrorist by the U.S. Treasury under Executive Order 13224 on December 1, 2015.“Treasury Sanctions Senior Boko Haram Leaders,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, December 1, 2015, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0290.aspx.

Nur allegedly introduced Boko Haram’s current leader, Abubakar Shekau, to the group’s founder, Mohammed Yusuf, in Borno State, Nigeria.“Nigeria's Boko Haram leader Abubakar Shekau in profile,” BBC News, May 9, 2014, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-18020349. Under Yusuf’s leadership, Nur reportedly wielded significant influence as Boko Haram’s third in command.Jacob Zenn, “Leadership Analysis of Boko Haram and Ansaru in Nigeria,” Combating Terrorism Centre at West Point, February 24, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/leadership-analysis-of-boko-haram-and-ansaru-in-nigeria. In 2009, during a large-scale crackdown on the group by Nigerian security forces, Yusuf was killed and Shekau, who had been named as Yusuf’s replacement, was detained.Jacob Zenn, “Leadership Analysis of Boko Haram and Ansaru in Nigeria,” Combating Terrorism Centre at West Point, February 24, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/leadership-analysis-of-boko-haram-and-ansaru-in-nigeria. Nur allegedly served as the group’s temporary leader until Shekau was released from custody.Jacob Zenn, “Leadership Analysis of Boko Haram and Ansaru in Nigeria,” Combating Terrorism Centre at West Point, February 24, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/leadership-analysis-of-boko-haram-and-ansaru-in-nigeria.

According to a report published by West Point’s Combating Terrorism Center, Nur trained with AQIM and al-Shabab militants in East Africa.Jacob Zenn, “Leadership Analysis of Boko Haram and Ansaru in Nigeria,” Combating Terrorism Centre at West Point, February 24, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/leadership-analysis-of-boko-haram-and-ansaru-in-nigeria. After returning to Nigeria, Nur was allegedly involved in the planning of two suicide bombing attacks in Abuja: one at the Federal Police Headquarters on June 16, 2011 and the other at the U.N. headquarters in August 2011. The sophisticated execution of the bombings led Nigerian security officials to suspect that a transnational terrorist organization, such as AQIM, may have sponsored the attacks.Jacob Zenn, “Leadership Analysis of Boko Haram and Ansaru in Nigeria,” Combating Terrorism Centre at West Point, February 24, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/leadership-analysis-of-boko-haram-and-ansaru-in-nigeria.

In 2012, Nur and other Boko Haram members formed an AQIM-aligned splinter group called Ansaru.Ludovica Laccino, “Could Ansaru leader Mamman Nur be the man behind Boko Haram split?,” International Business Times, August 12, 2016, https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/could-ansaru-leader-mamman-nur-be-man-behind-boko-haram-split-1575565; Jacob Zenn, “Boko Haram’s Factional Feud,” Council on Foreign Relations, August 11, 2016, https://www.cfr.org/blog/boko-harams-factional-feud. Despite Ansaru’s condemnation of Shekau’s use of children in suicide bombings and targeting of Muslim civilians, the groups reportedly maintained close ties.Ludovica Laccino, “Could Ansaru leader Mamman Nur be the man behind Boko Haram split?,” International Business Times, August 12, 2016, https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/could-ansaru-leader-mamman-nur-be-man-behind-boko-haram-split-1575565. Boko Haram pledged allegiance to ISIS under Shekau in 2015. The following year, however, Nur supported ISIS’s appointment of Abu Musab al-Barnawi as the leader of ISIS in West Africa.Jacob Zenn, “Boko Haram’s Factional Feud,” Council on Foreign Relations, August 11, 2016, https://www.cfr.org/blog/boko-harams-factional-feud. Like Nur, al-Barnawi allegedly disagrees with Shekau’s dictatorial leadership style and willingness to kill Muslim civilians.Omar Mahmood and Ndubuisi Christian Ani, “Factional Dynamics within Boko Haram,” Institute for Security Studies, July 2018, accessed September 18, 2018, https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2018-07-06-research-report-2.pdf; Max Siollun, “The Jihadi Too Violent for ISIS,” Foreign Policy, October 3, 2016, https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/10/03/the-jihadist-too-violent-for-isis-boko-haram-shekau/. Prior to his death, Nur was described as the “brain” behind al-Barnawi’s ISIS-endorsed Boko Haram faction.“Boko Haram Leader Mamman Nur ‘Killed By His Closest Lieutenants’ For Releasing Dapchi Girls,” Sahara Reporters, September 14, 2018, http://saharareporters.com/2018/09/14/boko-haram-leader-mamman-nur-killed-his-closest-lieutenants-releasing-dapchi-girls.

Algerian national Abdelmalek Droukdel, nom de guerre Abu Musab Abdel Wadoud, was the emir (leader) of al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). According to the U.S. Treasury, Droukdel encouraged other jihadist groups to join al-Qaeda.“Treasury Designates AQIM Emir,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, December 4, 2007, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/hp708.aspx. He was trained in building explosives and is believed to have introduced suicide bombings to Algeria.“Algeria al-Qaeda chief Droukdel sentenced in absentia,” BBC News, March 13, 2012, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17359310.> Droukdel reportedly named his mentor as Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the al-Qaeda in Iraq leader who was killed by a U.S. airstrike in 2006.Boubker Belkadi, “Ruthless chief, head of Al-Qaeda's NAfrica branch,” Middle East Online, December 13, 2007, http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=23510. The U.N. Security Council and the U.S. Treasury designated Droukdel as a terrorist in 2007."QI.D.232.07. ABDELMALEK DROUKDEL," United Nations Security Council, accessed Mary 4, 2015, http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1267/NSQDi232E.shtml; “Executive Order 13224 blocking Terrorist Property and a summary of the Terrorism Sanctions Regulations,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, accessed March 5, 2015, http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Programs/Documents/terror.pdf. French soldiers killed Droukdel in Mali in June 2020.Agence France-Presse, “French troops kill Al-Qaeda’s North Africa chief Abdelmalek Droukdel,” Telangana Today, June 6, 2020, https://telanganatoday.com/french-troops-kill-al-qaedas-north-africa-chief-abdelmalek-droukdel.

Between 1989 and 1993, Droukdel studied mathematics at the University of Blida in Algeria.“Northern Africa’s Most Wanted,” Counter Terror Business, accessed October 3, 2018, http://www.counterterrorbusiness.com/node/12624. In 1993, he began working with the Movement of the Islamic State (MEI), and then rose through the ranks of the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) and the Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat (GSPC).“Movement of the Islamic State (MEI),” Terrorism Research and Analysis Consortium, accessed October 4, 2018, https://www.trackingterrorism.org/group/movement-islamic-state-mei; “QDi 232. ABDELMALEK DROUKDEL,” United Nations Security Council, accessed October 3, 2018, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/abdelmalek-droukdel; AQAP, “Train Derail Operations,” Inspire, July 2017, https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2017/08/inspire-magazine-17.pdf He assumed leadership of the GSPC in June 2004 and initiated the merger with al-Qaeda in 2006 to form AQIM. Droukdel served as emir of AQIM since then until his death in June 2020.“QDi 232. ABDELMALEK DROUKDEL,” United Nations Security Council, accessed October 3, 2018, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/abdelmalek-droukdel; Agence France-Presse, “French troops kill Al-Qaeda’s North Africa chief Abdelmalek Droukdel,” Telangana Today, June 6, 2020, https://telanganatoday.com/french-troops-kill-al-qaedas-north-africa-chief-abdelmalek-droukdel.

Droukdel had been described as tough and strong-minded, and reportedly subscribed to a mix of political Islam and Arab nationalism. He had also been characterized as charismatic with excellent public speaking abilities.Abdel Bari Atwan, The Secret History of Al Qaeda, (University of California Press, 2008), 235-240. Depicted as ruthless and ambitious, Droukdel had purportedly eliminated members in AQIM’s ranks who diverted from his instructions or ideological positions.“Northern Africa’s Most Wanted,” Counter Terror Business, accessed October 3, 2018, http://www.counterterrorbusiness.com/node/12624. Unlike other al-Qaeda leaders, Droukdel did not trained in al-Qaeda camps in Yemen or Afghanistan, nor did he receive education in foreign madrassas (religious schools).Abdel Bari Atwan, The Secret History of Al Qaeda, (University of California Press, 2008), 235-240.

Nonetheless, Droukdel developed advanced skills in manufacturing explosives and electrical devices.AQAP, “Train Derail Operations,” Inspire, July 2017, https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2017/08/inspire-magazine-17.pdf. In 2007, Droukdel established a unit that specialized in suicide bombings and introduced the tactic in Algeria.Boubker Belkadi, “Ruthless chief, head of Al-Qaeda's NAfrica branch,” Middle East Online, December 13, 2007, https://web.archive.org/web/20171224214326/http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=23510; “Northern Africa’s Most Wanted,” Counter Terror Business, accessed October 3, 2018, http://www.counterterrorbusiness.com/node/12624.

Droukdel organized dozens of bombings across Algeria against both security and civilian targets, including the April 11, 2007, bombing of government offices in Algiers that claimed 33 lives and the December 11, 2007, attack on the United Nations office in Algiers that killed at least 26 people including 11 U.N. personnel.“QDi 232. ABDELMALEK DROUKDEL,” United Nations Security Council, accessed October 3, 2018, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/abdelmalek-droukdel; “11 UN workers among 26 killed in Algeria blasts,” CBC News, December 11, 2007, http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/11-un-workers-among-26-killed-in-algeria-blasts-1.636919. The April 2007 attack was the first suicide bombing in Algeria’s history.“Algeria Al-Qaeda Chief Droukdel Sentenced in Absentia,” BBC News, March 13, 2012, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-17359310. According to Algerian terrorism expert Faycal Oukaci, “Droukdel’s strategy involves two main points: attacks with explosives and a large amount of media attention on suicide attacks.”Boubker Belkadi, “Ruthless chief, head of Al-Qaeda's NAfrica branch,” Middle East Online, December 13, 2007, https://web.archive.org/web/20171224214326/http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=23510.

In March 27, 2007, the tribunal of Tizi-Ouzu in northern Algeria sentenced Droukdel to life imprisonment in absentia for his involvement in terrorist activities.“QDi 232. ABDELMALEK DROUKDEL,” United Nations Security Council, accessed October 3, 2018, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/abdelmalek-droukdel. A court in Algiers sentenced Droukdel to death in absentia five years later for premeditated murder, membership in a terrorist group, and attacks using explosives.“Death sentence in absentia for al Qaeda North Africa chief,” TimesLIVE, March 13, 2012, https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/africa/2012-03-13-death-sentence-in-absentia-for-al-qaeda-north-africa-chief/.

Beginning in October 2011, Droukdel provided military, financial, and logistical support to Ansar Dine—a Malian Islamic militant group—to increase AQIM’s territorial influence in northern Mali.“QDi 232. ABDELMALEK DROUKDEL,” United Nations Security Council, accessed October 3, 2018, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/abdelmalek-droukdel; Stanford University, “Mapping Militant Organizations – Ansar Dine,”, August 8, 2016, http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/437. Under Droukdel’s leadership, AQIM formed an alliance with Ansar Dine and MUJAO (Mouvement pour l’Unification et le Jihad en Afrique de l’Ouest) in November 2015 to fight against the French and Malian militaries.“QDi 232. ABDELMALEK DROUKDEL,” United Nations Security Council, accessed October 3, 2018, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/individual/abdelmalek-droukdel.

In October 2016, Algerian newspaper L’Expression reported that Algerian security services confirmed that Droukdel had managed to infiltrate Tunisia, with the substantial assistance of anonymous facilitators and financiers. Prior to his reported escape to Tunisia, Droukdel had allegedly been hiding in the Skikda Province, in northeast Algeria.Ikram Ghioua, “Les dessous d’un regain terroriste aux frontières et les alertes de l’algérie,” L’Expression (Algeria), October 18, 2016, http://www.tamoudre.org/geostrategie/terrorisme-geostrategie/dessous-dun-regain-terroriste-aux-frontieres-alertes-de-lalgerieet-lon-reparle-de-droukdel/. In January 2018, the same newspaper confirmed Droukdel’s residency in Tunisia. L’Expression reported that Algerian security services had prevented a meeting among senior AQIM leaders, which was aimed at restructuring the group’s ranks and preparing for Droukdel’s return to Algeria.Ikram Ghioua “Les terroristes de Khenchela sous la coupe de Droukdel,” L’Expression (Algeria), January 28, 2018, http://www.lexpressiondz.com/actualite/284964-les-terroristes-de-khenchela-sous-la-coupe-de-droukdel.html. The Algerian armed forces increasingly decimated AQIM’s ranks over recent years, and Droukdel lost members of his inner circle.Malek Bachir and Akram Kharief, “ANALYSIS: The slow death of al-Qaeda in Algeria,” February 1, 2018, https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/analysis-slow-death-al-qaeda-algeria-143324001.

Droukdel regularly issued audio and video propaganda messages.“Wadud, Abu Musab Abdul, (Abdelmalek Droukdel),” Site Intelligence, accessed October 5, 2018, https://ent.siteintelgroup.com/index.php?option=com_customproperties&task=tag&tagId=431&phpMyAdmin=31%20%20b32de8000cb1c40d5792b21dc9961a. In July 2017, al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) published an exclusive interview with Droukdel in its 17^th issue of Inspire magazine, where he urged Muslims to wage jihad in Western and francophone countries. Droukdel also justified al-Qaeda’s battle against the United States in general.AQAP, “Train Derail Operations,” Inspire, July 2017, https://azelin.files.wordpress.com/2017/08/inspire-magazine-17.pdf.

On June 4, 2020, French troops killed Droukdel in Talhandak, Mali, near the Algerian border. The United States provided intelligence that helped the French soldiers locate Droukdel.Agence France-Presse, “French troops kill Al-Qaeda’s North Africa chief Abdelmalek Droukdel,” Telangana Today, June 6, 2020, https://telanganatoday.com/french-troops-kill-al-qaedas-north-africa-chief-abdelmalek-droukdel.

Christos Pappas was a Member of the Greek Parliament and the reported deputy leader of the neo-Nazi Golden Dawn party.Greece Releases Golden Dawn Leader Nikos Michaloliakos From Jail, Wall Street Journal, March 20, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/greece-to-release-golden-dawn-leader-nikos-michaloliakos-from-jail-1426866104. On October 7, 2020, Pappas, along with other senior members of Golden Dawn, were found guilty of running a criminal organization.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html. After Pappas initially fled to evade incarceration, Greek authorities arrested Pappas in early July 2021, and he is serving out his sentence in a maximum-security prison.Tasos Kokkinidis, “Golden Dawn’s Christos Pappas Now in High-Security Prison,” Greek Reporter, July 2, 2021, https://greekreporter.com/2021/07/02/golden-dawn-christos-pappas-led-prison/.

Pappas, the son of a military officer and a close associate to former dictator Georgios Papadopoulos, was allegedly recorded on tape teaching a group of children to chant “Heil Hitler.”Helena Smith, “Greece puts faith in judges to heal wounds inflicted by Golden Dawn,” October 3, 2020, Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/global/2020/oct/03/greece-puts-faith-in-judges-to-heal-wounds-inflicted-by-golden-dawn. The video is one of four that Greek prosecutors have reportedly included in the case against him and other Golden Dawn members who faced charges of forming and directing a criminal organization.“Video shows Golden Dawn No 2 teaching children to chant ‘Heil Hitler!’,” Hope not Hate, September 23, 2014, http://www.hopenothate.org.uk/news/world/article/2134/video-shows-golden-dawn-no-2-teaching-children-to-chant-heil-hitler.

Following the arrests of Golden Dawn’s leadership on September 28, 2013 on charges of running a criminal organization, Pappas surrendered himself to Greek authorities the next day as he claimed he had “nothing to hide, nothing to fear.”Helena Smith, “Golden Dawn MP Christos Pappas surrenders to Greek police,” Guardian, September 29, 2013, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/sep/29/golden-dawn-mp-christos-pappas-greek-police. In October 2014, Golden Dawn leadership was required to face criminal trial.Helena Smith, “Greek prosecutor orders all Golden Dawn MPs to face criminal trial,” Guardian, October 16, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/greece-golden-dawn-mps-tried-criminal-offences. The order stated that over 50 leading Golden Dawn members should be tried for using the far-right group as a political front to pursue various illegal activities. In the past, Golden Dawn members have been accused of weapons offences, homicide, as well as attacks on immigrants, left-wing activities, and gay people.Helena Smith, “Greek prosecutor orders all Golden Dawn MPs to face criminal trial,”  Guardian, October 16, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/greece-golden-dawn-mps-tried-criminal-offences.

Despite being in custody, Pappas was re-elected to the Greek Parliament on January 25, 2015.“Leaders of Greece's far-right Golden Dawn party to stand trial on April 20,” Reuters, March 9, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/03/09/us-greece-politics-goldendawn-idUSKBN0M51MG20150309. Pappas was conditionally released from prison on March 29, 2015 after completing the 18-month maximum pre-trial detention dictated by Greek law.“Golden Dawn's No. 2 Pappas to get conditional release on March 29,” Ekathimerini, March 13, 2015, https://www.ekathimerini.com/168201/article/ekathimerini/news/golden-dawns-no-2-pappas-to-get-conditional-release-on-march-29. As part of the terms for his release, Pappas was prohibited from leaving the region of Attica and was obliged to hand over his passport to authorities.“Greece Releases Golden Dawn Leader Nikos Michaloliakos From Jail,” Wall Street Journal, March 20, 2015, http://www.wsj.com/articles/greece-to-release-golden-dawn-leader-nikos-michaloliakos-from-jail-1426866104; “Golden Dawn deputy Christos Pappas released from prison,” Times of Change, March 29, 2015, http://www.thetoc.gr/eng/politics/article/golden-dawn-deputy-christos-pappas-released-from-prison.

On October 7, 2020, the Athens Appeals Court found Golden Dawn guilty of running a criminal organization. More than 68 defendants, including the entire group’s leadership, faced charges of operating a criminal organization while posing as a political group, attempted murder, possession of weapons, and employing violence to remove political rivals, migrants, and communists. The senior members of the organization, including Pappas, faced sentences of five to 15 years in prison.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html; Tim Hume, “Greece’s Neo-Nazi Golden Dawn Party Have Been Ruled a Criminal Organisation,” Vice News, October 7, 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/n7wax7/greece-neo-nazi-golden-dawn-party-criminal-organisation; Angeliki Koutantou and Karolina Tagaris, “Leader of Greece's far-right Golden Dawn held in custody before trial,” Reuters, October 3, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/03/us-greece-goldendawn-leader-idUSBRE9920ZF20131003. On October 14, 2020, the three-member panel of judges sentenced Pappas, alongside the rest of Golden Dawn’s leadership, to a 13-year prison sentence.Paul Antonopoulos, “Golden Dawn Leaders Receive Up to 13 Years in Prison,” Greek City Times, October 14, 2020, https://greekcitytimes.com/2020/10/14/golden-dawn-leaders-receive-up-to-13-years-in-prison/.

However, Pappas went missing on October 23, the day that he was supposed to begin his prison sentence.Helena Smith, “'It’s Incredible': Why Do Two Convicted Greek Neo-Nazis Remain at Large?” Guardian, January 11, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/11/its-incredible-why-do-two-convicted-greek-neo-nazis-golden-dawn-remain-at-large; “Golden Dawn's Pappas on the Run as Colleagues Start Jail Terms,” BBC News, October 23, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54657540. In a plan that police officials described as well-organized, Pappas left his cell phone at home and disappeared.Philip Chrysopoulos, “Greek neo-Nazi Still At Large Three Months After Conviction for Fyssas Murder,” Greek Reporter, January 5, 2021, https://greece.greekreporter.com/2021/01/05/greek-neo-nazi-still-at-large-three-months-after-conviction/. His attorney stated that “he [Pappas] is disappointed…he is not going to give himself up,” and that Pappas made a “conscious decision” to flee because he believed his conviction would be overturned. Greek police launched a manhunt for the fugitive, searching three locations in Athens and the town of Ioannina, as well as Belgium, France, and Austria.Helena Smith, “Golden Dawn Deputy Leader Evades Arrest After Jail Sentence,” Guardian, October 23, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/23/golden-dawn-deputy-leader-christos-pappas-evades-arrest-after-jail-sentence; Philip Chrysopoulos, “Greek neo-Nazi Still At Large Three Months After Conviction for Fyssas Murder,” Greek Reporter, January 5, 2021, https://greece.greekreporter.com/2021/01/05/greek-neo-nazi-still-at-large-three-months-after-conviction/. As of January 2021, authorities believed Pappas had fled to a neighboring Orthodox Balkan state. According to Pappas’s lawyer, Pericles Stavrianakis, he “has no intention of surrendering because he believes the trial was politically motivated,” though Stavrianakis suggested that decision might change if the case reaches the appeals stage.Helena Smith, “‘It’s incredible’: why do two convicted Greek neo-Nazis remain at large?,” Guardian (London), January 11, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/11/its-incredible-why-do-two-convicted-greek-neo-nazis-golden-dawn-remain-at-large.

Pappas was arrested on July 1, 2021, in Zografou, Athens, where an unidentified 52-year-old woman was reportedly hiding him.Thomas Kissel, “Golden Dawn Fugitive Christos Pappas Arrested in Greece,” Greek Reporter, July 2, 2021, https://greekreporter.com/2021/07/02/golden-dawn-christos-pappas-arrested-greece/. The following day, a sentencing prosecutor in Athens ordered Pappas to serve out his more-than 13-year sentence. Pappas was transferred to a maximum-security prison in Domokos, Greece, the same day.Tasos Kokkinidis, “Golden Dawn’s Christos Pappas Now in High-Security Prison,” Greek Reporter, July 2, 2021, https://greekreporter.com/2021/07/02/golden-dawn-christos-pappas-led-prison/.

Ilias Kasidiaris was a senior Golden Dawn member, who served in the Greek parliament, and a spokesperson for the party. He is also the nephew of former Golden Dawn leader Nikolaos Michaloliakos.Gavin Haynes, “Illias Kasidiaris is the playboy of the Greek far-right,” Vice News, June 6, 2013, http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/ilias-kasidiaris. Kasidiaris was elected to parliament in 2012, and unsuccessfully ran for mayor of Athens in 2014.Associated Press, “Under police escort, Greek extreme right politician takes seat on Athens city council,” Fox News, August 29, 2014, http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/08/29/under-police-escort-greek-extreme-right-politician-takes-seat-on-athens-city.html. On October 7, 2020, Kasidiaris, along with other senior members of Golden Dawn, were found guilty of running a criminal organization.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html. Despite his incarceration, Kasidiaris has sought to remain active in Greek politics with a far-right party he formed prior to his arrest, as well as other far-right Greek parties.“Kasidiaris says he wants to run for Athens mayor,” Ekathimerini, July 27, 2023, https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/1216489/kasidiaris-says-he-wants-to-run-for-athens-mayor/.

Prior to joining Golden Dawn, Kasidiaris attended the Agricultural University of Athens studying chemistry and food technologies. At the same time he was involved in Michaloliakos’s youth movement.Gavin Haynes, “Ilias Kasidiaris Is the Playboy of the Greek Far-Right,” Vice, June 06, 2013,    http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/ilias-kasidiaris. After being elected to the Greek parliament in May 2012, Kasidiaris delivered his first speech, allegedly reading from The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a text which has been described by Vice News as “an ancient fabricated smear text beloved by European anti-Semites since before Hitler.”Gavin Haynes, “Ilias Kasidiaris Is the Playboy of the Greek Far-Right,” Vice, June 06, 2013,    http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/ilias-kasidiaris; Becatoros, Elena. “Greek Extremist Party Member in TV Assault,” June 07, 2012, http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-greek-extremist-party-member-in-tv-assault-2012jun07-story.html.

Kasidiaris operates a Twitter account on which he advocates the views of the Golden Dawn organization, which was last updated on October 5, 2020.Ηλίας Κασιδιάρης, Twitter post, May 2, 2017, 3:52 a.m. EST, https://twitter.com/IliasKasidiaris/status/859359903810506752. He is also said to have a Swastika tattooed on his arm and has shown support for fascism and the ideology of the Nazi regime in Germany. Gavin Haynes, “Ilias Kasidiaris Is the Playboy of the Greek Far-Right,” Vice, June 06, 2013,    http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/ilias-kasidiaris. According to Vice News, Kasidiaris is also the author of the book entitled Sector X, named after a group of Greek collaborators during World War II who searched for and subsequently executed partisans resisting the Nazi regime.Gavin Haynes, “Ilias Kasidiaris Is the Playboy of the Greek Far-Right,” Vice, June 06, 2013,    http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/ilias-kasidiaris.

Kasidiaris made headlines in 2012 when he physically assaulted two female politicians on a TV show because one of them had criticized Golden Dawn.Helen Smith, “Golden Dawn MP's live TV assault shocks Greece,” Guardian (London), June 7, 2012, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/07/golden-dawn-tv-assault-greece. During a seven-person panel discussion on a Greek morning television show , Kasidiaris assaulted Rena Dourou and Lianna Kanelli, of the KKE left-wing communist party.Helen Smith, “Golden Dawn MP's live TV assault shocks Greece,” Guardian (London), June 7, 2012, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/07/golden-dawn-tv-assault-greece. Kasidiaris threw a glass of water at Dourou when she claimed that Golden Dawn “would take the country back 500 years” if elected.Helen Smith, “Golden Dawn MP's live TV assault shocks Greece,” Guardian (London), June 7, 2012, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/07/golden-dawn-tv-assault-greece. Kasidiaris then hit Kanelli before being locked in a room by the television station employees to await police. Kasidiaris broke out of the room and fled, evading law enforcement until the 48-hour window for his arrest had passed.“Greek New Dawn’s Ilias Kasidiaris sues women over TV row,” BBC News, June 11, 2012, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18398603. Kasidiaris subsequently countersued both of the women, as well as Greek television station Antenna, claiming that the television station unlawfully held him and that he had acted against the women in self-defense, and asserting that “when you get hit in the face you have to defend yourself.”“Greek New Dawn’s Ilias Kasidiaris sues women over TV row,” BBC News, June 11, 2012, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18398603. On March 16, 2015, Kasidiaris was acquitted of charges brought up against him after the 2012 assault.“Kasidiaris cleared over live TV attack on Communist MP,” Ekathemerini, March 6, 2015, http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_06/03/2015_547964.

Kasidiaris faced trial in March 2013 for his alleged role in the 2007 assault of a student of Polytechniou Poli. According to authorities, an eyewitness identified the car used in the getaway as one belonging to Kasidiaris.Lynn Edwards, “Threatening atmosphere at Kasidiaris’ trial,” EnetEnglish, March 7, 2013, http://www.enetenglish.gr/?i=news.en.article&id=210. Kasidiaris was found not guilty on the grounds of reasonable doubt as to his participation.“Kasidiaris found innocent,” To Vima, March 7, 2013, http://www.tovima.gr/en/article/?aid=501765.

On September 28, 2013, Kasidiaris, Michaloliakos, and the entirety of the Golden Dawn parliamentary party were arrested under warrant for charges of leading a criminal organization.Nathalie Savaricas, “Sunrise arrests for Golden Dawn: Greek police detain Neo-Nazi MP Nikos Michaloliakos and 16 others,” Independent (London), September 28, 2013, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/sunrise-arrests-for-golden-dawn-greek-police-detain-neo-nazi-mp-nikos-michaloliakos-and-16-others-8846582.html. The arrests came after the death of left-wing rapper Pavlos Fyssas, who was stabbed to death by a Golden Dawn supporter outside of a café on September 18, 2013.Liz Alderman, “Greece arrests senior members of far-right party,” New York Times, September 28, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/world/europe/greece-cracks-down-on-golden-dawn-with-arrests.html. The stabbing—taking place shortly after midnight—reportedly came after an altercation related to a football match being broadcast at the time.“ ‘Neo-Nazi’ held over Greek musician Pavlos Fyssas death,” BBC News, September 18, 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-24141246. Kasidiaris was released on bail on October 2, 2013, on the condition that he would not leave the country.The Associated Press and Elena Becatoros, Derek Gatopoulos, Damien McElroy, “Greece accuses Golden Dawn leaders of running neo-Nazi pimp network before release pending trial,” National Post (Canada), October 2, 2013, http://news.nationalpost.com/news/greece-accuses-golden-dawn-leaders-of-running-neo-nazi-pimp-network-before-release-pending-trial.

On October 16, 2014, Kasidiaris was ordered to face criminal trial. The order stated that more than 50 leading Golden Dawn parliamentarians should be tried for using the far-right group as a political front to pursue various illegal activities. In the past, Golden Dawn members have been accused of weapons offenses, homicide, as well as attacks on immigrants, left-wing activities, and gay people.Helena Smith, “Golden Dawn MP's live TV assault shocks Greece,” Guardian (London), June 7, 2012, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/07/golden-dawn-tv-assault-greece.

In December 2014, the Greek Parliament decided to remove Kasidiaris’s political immunity so that he could be tried on charges of illegally recording conversation with former government general secretary Takis Baltakos, in connection with the criminal organization charges.“Prosecutor presses charges against Kasidiaris for Baltakos video,” To Vima, December 19, 2014, http://www.tovima.gr/en/article/?aid=660968. The other Golden Dawn members arrested in 2013 were released March 20, 2015, when the maximum time for detention expired, allowing them to return to parliament.“Greek Golden Dawn leader and MPs released from prison as time limit on pre-trial custody runs out,” Independent (London), March 20, 2015, http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/greek-golden-dawn-leader-and-mps-released-from-prison-as-time-limit-on-pre-trial-custody-runs-out-10123437.html. The trial, which began on April 20, 2015, reached a verdict on October 7, 2020.Daniel Trilling, “Golden Dawn: the rise and fall of Greece’s neo-Nazis,” Guardian, March 3, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/mar/03/golden-dawn-the-rise-and-fall-of-greece-neo-nazi-trial.

The charges being held against all of the arrested Golden Dawn members include running a criminal organization, murder, extortion, possession of unlicensed weapons, and involvement in the disappearance of up to 100 immigrants. Kasidiaris also personally faces charges of forgery, counterfeiting, grievous bodily harm, trafficking, aggravated theft, embezzlement, and fraud in relation to the broader Golden Dawn trial.Omaira Gill, “The Golden Dawn Trial,” Wordpress.com, April 19, 2015, https://omairagill.com/2015/04/19/the-golden-dawn-trial/.

On May 15, 2017, Kasidiaris was ejected from Greek Parliament when presenting in front of a committee on economics.Will Horner, “Greek far-right MP ejected from parliament after fracas,” Politico Europe, May 15, 2017, http://www.politico.eu/article/greek-far-right-mp-ejected-from-parliament-fracas-golden-dawn/. Kasidiaris took offense when Nikos Dendias walked in front of him, assaulting Dendias by throwing water bottles at him before being ordered to leave.Will Horner, “Greek far-right MP ejected from parliament after fracas,” Politico Europe, May 15, 2017, http://www.politico.eu/article/greek-far-right-mp-ejected-from-parliament-fracas-golden-dawn/. Dendias is Minister of Public Order and Citizen Protection, and as such oversaw Kasidiaris’s arrest as well as the arrests of Golden Dawn’s entire parliamentary group in connection with the 2013 murder of Fyssas.Will Horner, “Greek far-right MP ejected from parliament after fracas,” Politico Europe, May 15, 2017, http://www.politico.eu/article/greek-far-right-mp-ejected-from-parliament-fracas-golden-dawn/.

Kasidiaris also has a history of dealing in anti-Muslim rhetoric. In 2016, Kasidiaris spoke out strongly against Muslim immigration, expressing outrage at those who supported open borders in light of the unrest in the Middle East, accusing them of selling out Greece’s national sovereignty and allowing Greece to be made into an “Islamic state.”Christopher Menahan, “Greek Politician explodes on open borders leftists: ‘we fought for 400 years so the Islamists would leave!,’” Information Liberation, https://www.informationliberation.com/?id=54565.

On July 8, 2019, after seven years since joining Greece’s parliament, the Golden Dawn Party failed to acquire the three percent of national votes needed to secure seats in the 300-member legislature.“Neo-fascist Golden Dawn party crashes out of Greek parliament,” Al Jazeera, July 08, 2019.  https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/07/neo-fascist-golden-dawn-party-crashes-greek-parliament-190708060921804.html. The waning popularity of the party is supposedly due to several prominent members, including founder Nikolaos Michaloliakos, facing charges of operating a criminal organization as well as the party being linked to the murder of rapper Pavlos Fyassas in 2013.“Endgame in 'historic' 4-year Greek Neo-Nazi Party Trial,” France 24, April 19, 2019. https://www.france24.com/en/20190419-endgame-historic-4-year-greek-neo-nazi-party-trial.

Given the waning popularity of Golden Dawn, in June 2020, Kasidiaris announced the establishment of a new party called “Greeks for the Fatherland.” In a video posted on YouTube, Kasidiaris claimed the new party was a movement for the “national preservation and revival of Hellenism.” The party maintains many of the same platforms endorsed by Golden Dawn, particularly the focus on ending illegal immigration. By August 2021, the group had over 20,000 registered members.Vasiliki Tasgkroni, “In Greece, a new far right movement is taking the stage,” Centre for the Analysis of the Radical Right, August 27, 2020, https://www.radicalrightanalysis.com/2020/08/27/in-greece-a-new-far-right-movement-is-taking-the-stage/; Ηλίας Κασιδιάρης, “"ΕΛΛΗΝΕΣ για την Πατρίδα": Το κόμμα του Ηλία Κασιδιάρη!,” YouTube, June 4, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoyA4tttvhw&ab_channel=%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%82 The party is commonly known as Ellhnes or Ellines, which means “Greeks.”“Greece bans parties with convicted leaders from running in elections,” Reuters, February 9, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/greece-bans-parties-with-convicted-leaders-running-elections-2023-02-09/.

On October 7, 2020, the Athens Appeals Court found Golden Dawn guilty of running a criminal organization. More than 68 defendants, including the entire group’s leadership, faced charges of operating a criminal organization while posing as a political group, attempted murder, possession of weapons, and employing violence to remove political rivals, migrants, and communists. The senior members of the organization, including Kasidiaris, faced sentences of five to 15 years in prison.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html; Tim Hume, “Greece’s Neo-Nazi Golden Dawn Party Have Been Ruled a Criminal Organisation,” Vice News, October 7, 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/n7wax7/greece-neo-nazi-golden-dawn-party-criminal-organisation; Angeliki Koutantou and Karolina Tagaris, “Leader of Greece's far-right Golden Dawn held in custody before trial,” Reuters, October 3, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/03/us-greece-goldendawn-leader-idUSBRE9920ZF20131003. On October 14, 2020, the court sentenced Kasidiaris to 13 ½ years in prison as a senior member of Golden Dawn’s inner circle.Helena Smith, “Neo-Nazi Leaders of Greece's Golden Dawn Sentenced to 13 Years,” Guardian, October 14, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/14/greece-golden-dawn-neo-nazi-prison-sentences. Kasidiaris turned himself in on October 22. He compared the conviction of Golden Dawn leaders to the persecution of historic Greek heroes such as Themistocles.Renee Maltezou and Michele Kambas, “Convicted leader of Greece's far-right Golden Dawn hands himself in,” Reuters, October 22, 2020, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-greece-golden-dawn-trial-idUKKBN2771FN.

Nonetheless, Kasidiaris continued to find ways to publicize his ideologies. Kasidiaris managed to upload more than 52 videos onto his YouTube Channel while in prison, with topics ranging from the government’s handling of the COVID-19 pandemic, anti-vaccination stances, and Athens’ policy on migrants and refugees. Kasidiaris also continued to support Greeks for the Fatherland, going so far as to join a rally via phone in September 2021.Iliana Papangeli and Stavros Malichudis, “From Behind Bars, Greek Far-Right Still Spreading the Word,” Balkan Insight, March 15, 2022, https://balkaninsight.com/2022/03/15/from-behind-bars-greek-far-right-still-spreading-the-word/; Emre Metin Bilginer, “Marking the First Anniversary of the Golden Dawn Trial: from political acquisition to stalemate,” London School of Economics, November 17, 2021, https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/greeceatlse/2021/11/17/marking-the-first-anniversary-of-the-golden-dawn-trial-from-political-acquisition-to-stalemate/.

Given Kasidiaris’ continued social media presence, on October 7, 2021, the administration of Domokos Prison announced they would place limitations on his calls. According to the prison administration, Kasidiaris will only be allowed to communicate with family members and lawyers authorized to visit him in prison or communicate with him on Skype.“Prison administration agrees to restrict phone access for ex-Golden Dawn official,” Ekathimerini, October 7, 2021, https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/1169324/prison-administration-agrees-to-restrict-phone-access-for-ex-golden-dawn-official/. Despite the new limitations, Kasidiaris continued to post videos on YouTube, with his most recent video published on March 14, 2022.Ηλίας Κασιδιάρης, “Κασιδιάρης: Ελλάς, Ρωσία, τουρκική απειλή και ενεργειακή κρίση,” YouTube, March 14, 2022, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sV8xywgjgHM&ab_channel=%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82%CE%9A%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%AC%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%82.

Kasidiaris’s party sought to run in Greece’s May 2023 parliamentary elections. In February 2023, Greece’s government sought to bar the party from running by passing a law barring parties whose leaders have been convicted of crimes from running in elections. Kasidiaris accused the government of “plotting against democracy.”“Greece bans parties with convicted leaders from running in elections,” Reuters, February 9, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/greece-bans-parties-with-convicted-leaders-running-elections-2023-02-09/. To circumvent the ban, Kasidiaris stepped down as leader of the Greeks party that April. He was replaced by former assistant Supreme Court prosecutor Anastasios Kanellopoulos. Later that month, Kasidiaris announced his intent to run on the political slate of the Greeks party in Athens’ First Electoral District.Derek Gatopoulos, “Greek far-right party seeks to defy election ban,” Associated Press, April 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/greece-far-right-party-election-ban-170ccdbc7a3d1847f9c8360036410479; “Kasidiaris to run in elections with his own far-right party despite government ban,” Ekathimerini, April 26, 2023, https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/1209593/ilias-kasidiaris-to-run-in-elections-with-his-own-far-right-party-despite-government-ban/. In May, Greece’s supreme court upheld a decision to bar Kasidiaris’s party from running.“Convict Kasidiaris’ party barred from elections,” Ekathimerini, May 2, 2023, https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/1210018/convict-kasidiaris-party-barred-from-elections/. The court ruled the Hellenes party was clearly the “successor” to Golden Dawn and banned the party from participating in the country’s June 2023 parliamentary elections.Helena Smith, “Greek supreme court upholds ban on far-right party ‘to protect democracy,’” Guardian (London), May 4, 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/may/04/greek-far-right-party-hellenes-ban-protect-democracy-golden-dawn.

After the supreme court’s decision, Kasidiaris endorsed the far-right party Spartans party ahead of Greece’s June 25 elections. Together with far-right parties Greek Solution and Niki, Spartans won more than 12 percent of the vote, making Spartans the country’s fifth largest party.Michele Kambas and Renee Maltezou, “From behind bars, Greek far-right populist propels ultra-nationalists,” Reuters, June 29, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/behind-bars-greek-far-right-populist-propels-ultra-nationalists-2023-06-29/. Kasidiaris has continued to seek political office despite his incarceration. On July 27, 2023, he announced his intent to run for mayor of Athens in that October’s municipal elections. He announced he would run with the party Free Athenians. In a statement passed to his lawyer, Kasidiaris declared Athens “can and must preserve its Greek identity and historical character, not succumb to the onslaught of globalization and the visible risk of replacing its Greek population.”“Kasidiaris says he wants to run for Athens mayor,” Ekathimerini, July 27, 2023, https://www.ekathimerini.com/news/1216489/kasidiaris-says-he-wants-to-run-for-athens-mayor/.

Ilias Panagiotaros was a member of the neo-Nazi Golden Dawn party, who formerly served in the Greek parliament. In September 2013, Greek authorities arrested Panagiotaros and other Golden Dawn leaders in connection to the murder of an anti-fascist singer.Liz Alderman, “Greece Arrests Senior Members of Far-Right Party,” New York Times, September 28, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/world/europe/greece-cracks-down-on-golden-dawn-with-arrests.html?_r=0&pagewanted=print. On October 7, 2020, Pappas, along with other senior members of Golden Dawn, were found guilty of running a criminal organization.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html.

Panagiotaros appears to support many of his party’s neo-Nazi, racist, and homophobic views, describing Hitler at one stage as a “great personality, like Stalin.”Helena Smith, “Greek Prosecutor Orders All Golden Dawn MPs to Face Criminal Trial,” Guardian, October 16, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/greece-golden-dawn-mps-tried-criminal-offences. According to media sources, Panagiotaros also owns a shop which sells camouflage gear, police riot gloves, face masks, and T-shirts extolling football hooliganism.Paul Mason, “Alarm at Greek Police 'collusion' with Far-right Golden Dawn,” BBC News, October 17, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-19976841.

Panagiotaros was arrested and briefly held on June 2, 2012, for allegedly stabbing a Pakistani man in Athens, but upon investigation, two other Golden Dawn members were responsible for the attack.“2 Greek neo-Nazis get life for killing Pakistani,” Times of Israel, April 15, 2014, https://www.timesofisrael.com/2-greek-neo-nazis-get-life-for-killing-pakistani/. Panagiotaros also reportedly led an October 2012 demonstration that interrupted the performance of the Terence McNally play, Corpus Christi, where he was recorded shouting racist and homophobic insults at the director of the play as well as the actors.Mason, Paul. “Alarm at Greek Police 'collusion' with Far-right Golden Dawn,” BBC News, October 17, 2012, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-19976841.

On September 28, 2013, Greek authorities arrested Panagiotaros and other members of Golden Dawn on charges of being a member of a criminal organization. They were also investigated for manslaughter, assault, extortion, bombings, and money laundering.Liz Alderman, “Greece Arrests Senior Members of Far-Right Party,” New York Times, September 28, 2013, https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/29/world/europe/greece-cracks-down-on-golden-dawn-with-arrests.html. Panagiotaros was conditionally freed pending trial on October 2, 2013, and was ordered to not leave the country.Yorgos Karahalis, “Greece's Golden Dawn lawmakers unexpectedly freed before trial,” Reuters, October 2, 2013, https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-greece-goldendawn-free/greeces-golden-dawn-lawmakers-unexpectedly-freed-before-trial-idUKBRE99108420131002; Nektaria Stamouli, “Greek Parliament Votes to Lift Immunity of Golden Dawn Deputies,” Wall Street Journal, October 16, 2020, https://www.wsj.com/articles/greek-parliament-votes-to-lift-immunity-of-golden-dawn-deputies-1381928171.

In October 2014, a Greek prosecutor ordered Golden Dawn members to face a criminal trial.Helena Smith, “Greek Prosecutor Orders All Golden Dawn MPs to Face Criminal Trial,” Guardian, October 16, 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/greece-golden-dawn-mps-tried-criminal-offences. The order stated that over 50 leading Golden Dawn members should be tried for using the far-right group as a political front to pursue various illegal activities. In the past, Golden Dawn members have been accused of weapons offences, homicide, as well as attacks on immigrants, left-wing activities, and gay people.Helena Smith, “Greek prosecutor orders all Golden Dawn MPs to face criminal trial,”  Guardian, October 16, 2014, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/16/greece-golden-dawn-mps-tried-criminal-offences.

Given widespread negative media coverage surrounding Golden Dawn’s trial, the party saw a decline in public support, and on July 8, 2019—after seven years since joining Greece’s parliament—the Golden Dawn Party failed to acquire the three percent of national votes needed to secure seats in the 300-member legislature.“Neo-fascist Golden Dawn party crashes out of Greek parliament,” Al Jazeera, July 08, 2019,  https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/07/neo-fascist-golden-dawn-party-crashes-greek-parliament-190708060921804.html.

On October 7, 2020, the Athens Appeals Court found Golden Dawn guilty of running a criminal organization. More than 68 defendants, including the entire group’s leadership, faced charges of operating a criminal organization while posing as a political group, attempted murder, possession of weapons, and employing violence to remove political rivals, migrants, and communists. The senior members of the organization, including Panagiotaros, faced sentences of five to 15 years in prison.Niki Kitsantonis and Iliana Magra, “Golden Dawn Found Guilty of Running Criminal Organization in Greece,” New York Times, October 7, 2020, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/07/world/europe/golden-dawn-guilty-verdict-greece.html; “Greece Golden Dawn: Neo-Nazi leaders guilty of running crime gang,” BBC News, October 7, 2020, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54433396; Angeliki Koutantou and Karolina Tagaris, “Leader of Greece's far-right Golden Dawn held in custody before trial,” Reuters, October 3, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/10/03/us-greece-goldendawn-leader-idUSBRE9920ZF20131003. On October 14, 2020, Panagiotaros was sentenced to 13 years in prison alongside other members of Golden Dawn.Tasos Kokkinidis, “Criminal Organization Golden Dawn is Behind Bars For Good,” Greek Reporter, October 14, 2020, https://greece.greekreporter.com/2020/10/14/criminal-organization-golden-dawn-is-behind-bars-for-good/.

Abu Bakar Bashir is a U.S.-designated Indonesian Islamist cleric and founder of two designated Indonesia-based terrorist organizations.Samuel Rubenfeld, “US Sanctions Indonesian Group, Leaders,” Wall Street Journal, February 23, 2012, https://www.wsj.com/amp/articles/BL-CCB-5950?responsive=y. In 1993, Bashir and Abdullah Sungkar established Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), which has links to al-Qaeda and carried out the 2002 and 2005 Bali bombings.“Timeline: Attacks and plots blamed on Jemaah Islamiah in Asia,” Reuters, September 17, 2009, http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/09/17/us-indonesia-militants-timeline-sb-idUSTRE58G29X20090917. In 2008, Bashir broke from JI and established a separate group, Jemmah Ansharut Tauhid (JAT), which has since been implicated in several terrorist attacks.“JEMMAH ANSHORUT TAUHID (JAT),” United Nations Security Council, July 17, 2018, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/jemmah-anshorut-tauhid. He is currently serving a 15-year sentence for propagating terrorism, at the Pasir Putih prison in Nusakambangan, an island near the coast of Cilacap, Central Java.Witular, Rendi A. “Abu Bakar Ba’asyir calls on followers to support ISIL.” The Jakarta Post, July 14, 2014. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/07/14/abu-bakar-ba-asyir-calls-followers-support-isil.html. In July 2014, Bashir pledged allegiance to ISIS during a meeting with his followers in prison.“The Re-emergence of Jemaah Islamiyah,” Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict, April 27, 2017, 1, http://file.understandingconflict.org/file/2017/04/IPAC_Report_36.pdf. Nonetheless, Bashir was released from prison on January 8, 2021, after having accumulated 55 months of sentence reductions for good behavior, Islamic holidays, and other reductions.Richard C. Paddock and Muktita Suhartono, “Muslim Cleric Tied to Bali Nightclub Bombing Is Freed From Prison,” New York Times,  January 7, 2021,  https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/07/world/asia/Abu-Bakar-Bashir-bali-bombing-freed.html; Agence France-Presse, “Indonesia set to free Bali bombing-linked cleric Bashir,” France 24, January 1, 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210104-indonesia-set-to-free-bali-bombing-linked-cleric-bashir.

Bashir was born in 1938 in Indonesia’s East Java province to parents of Yemeni descent. Unlike Osama bin Laden he did not come from a family of distinction and did not receive a cosmopolitan education. He attended a well-known modernist Islamic boarding school, or pesantren, from 1959-1963 and graduated from the Al-Irsyad University in Central Java. Bashir began preaching at an early age.“Abu Bakar Bashir: Timeline of extremism.” ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), October 26, 2011. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-06-16/abu-bakar-bashir-timeline-of-extremism/2760374.

Bashir became one of the more prominent radicals, espousing strict sharia (Islamic law) in the 1970s. He has consistently preached that Islamic communities are a necessary precondition for establishment of an Islamic caliphate. “Profile: Abu Bakar Ba’asyir.” BBC News, June 11, 2011. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10912588. Together with Abdullah Sungkar, Bashir established an Islamic school, or madrasa, called Al-Mukmin in Ngruki, Central Java in 1972. “Profile: Abu Bakar Ba’asyir.” BBC News, June 11, 2011. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10912588. The school indoctrinated students with a disestablishment gospel, calling for the overthrow of the Indonesian government and the founding of an Islamic state under sharia. As a result of perpetual inflammatory remarks against President Suharto’s regime and promotion of an Islamic state, Bashir was charged with subversion in the late 1970s. “Profile: Abu Bakar Ba’asyir.” BBC News, June 11, 2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10912588. Sungkar was also charged with infractions against the state and the two fled to Malaysia in 1985.Richard C. Paddock, “Australia Hunts for Terror Cells,” Los Angeles Times, November 17, 2002, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2002-nov-17-fg-cells17-story.html.

During their exile in Malaysia, Bashir and Sungkar expanded their network of madrasas, sending students to training camps in Afghanistan and Mindanao in Southern Philippines. It is during this period of outreach and network building, that the basis for the Jemaah Islamiyah’s organization is developed.Jeremy Ginges, Justin Magouirk, Scott Atran, “Radical Madrasa in Southeast Asia,” CTC Sentinel, February 2008, https://ctc.usma.edu/radical-madrasas-in-southeast-asia/. Following the fall of President Suharto in 1998, both returned to Indonesia to continue their campaign for a sharia state.“Profile: Abu Bakar Ba’asyir.” BBC News, June 11, 2011. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10912588.

Bashir has been in and out of jail for over four decades on charges of providing support for terrorism, inciting violence, and calling for the overthrow of the government and establishment of sharia. The Indonesian government and judicial system have arguably exercised restraint in prosecuting Bashir. According to several sources, Indonesian authorities have been hesitant to prosecute the cleric to the fullest extent of the law for fear of angering Islamic extremists within the country. Onishi, Norimitsu. “Indonesia Sentences a Radical Cleric to 15 years.” New York Times, June 16, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/17/world/asia/17indonesia.html?_r=0. For example, Bashir was arrested and charged in 2003 for his involvement in the 2002 Bali bombings, but ultimately received a minor conviction related to immigration breaches.“Indonesia Profile: Timeline.” BBC News, October 24, 2014. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15114517. In 2004, Bashir was charged with involvement in the 2003 JW Marriott Hotel bombing in Jakarta, but the court cleared him of any implication.“Abu Bakar Bashir: Timeline of extremism.” ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), October 26, 2011. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-06-16/abu-bakar-bashir-timeline-of-extremism/2760374. In March 2005, in a second trial related to the 2002 Bali bombings, Bashir was found guilty of conspiracy and sentenced to less than four years in prison, though he only served 3 months.Teslik, Lee Hudson. “Profile: Abu Bakr Bashir (a.k.a. Ba’asyir).” Council on Foreign Relations, June 14, 1006. http://www.cfr.org/indonesia/profile-abu-bakar-bashir-k-baasyir/p10219.

Finally, on August 9, 2010, Indonesian authorities arrested Bashir for involvement in planning terror attacks and supporting an extremist training camp in the Aceh province of Sumatra. In December of that year, Indonesian prosecutors said they were seeking the death penalty for Bashir.“Abu Bakar Ba'asyir: The radical Indonesian cleric linked to Bali bombings,” BBC News, January 6, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10912588; Saputra, Andy. “Indonesian Islamic cleric could face death penalty, police say.” CNN, December 14, 2010. http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/12/13/indonesia.cleric.arrest/. On June 26, 2011, Bashir was sentenced to 15 years in prison for his support of the training camp established by militant group “Al Qaeda of the Veranda of Mecca,” which appears to have no ties to al-Qaeda’s core leadership.Onishi, Norimitsu. “Indonesia Sentences a Radical Cleric to 15 years.” New York Times, June 16, 2011. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/17/world/asia/17indonesia.html?_r=0.

Even when imprisoned, Bashir continues to preach for establishment of sharia and a violent toppling of the Indonesian regime. In 2008, he established a new group, Jemaah Ansharut Tauhid (JAT), following a sermon in which he referred to tourists in Bali as “worms, snakes and maggots” and called for youth to seek martyrdom. “Abu Bakar Bashir: Timeline of extremism.” ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation), October 26, 2011, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-06-16/abu-bakar-bashir-timeline-of-extremism/2760374. JAT has since been implicated in numerous terrorist attacks.“JEMMAH ANSHORUT TAUHID (JAT),” United Nations Security Council, July 17, 2018, https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sanctions/1267/aq_sanctions_list/summaries/entity/jemmah-anshorut-tauhid. Bashir had sought to revive the “Islamic movement” in Indonesia through public outreach and education. In order to serve this purpose, he established JAT as an “open and above-ground” organization, as opposed to the “underground” characteristic of groups such as JI.Amy Chew, “Indonesia’s arrest of Jemaah Islamiah leader involved in Bali bombings exposes active recruitment to create caliphate,” South China Morning Post, July 1, 2019, https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3016833/indonesias-arrest-ji-leader-para-wijayanto-exposes. JAT’s establishment caused a rift within JI, with some members following Bashir and others remaining committed to the original group. JI and JAT disagreed over strategy and tactics, and eventually JI leaders demanded that anyone who joined JAT must leave JI.“Indonesia: The Dark Side of Jama’ah Ansharut Tauhid (JAT),” International Crisis Group, July 6, 2020,  https://d2071andvip0wj.cloudfront.net/b107-indonesia-the-dark-side-of-jama-ah-ansharut-tauhid-jat.pdf. According to the Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict, when JAT was founded, Bashir’s links to JI, “which had frayed for some time, were severed, and he no longer had anything to do with the organization.”“The Re-emergence of Jemaah Islamiyah,” Institute for Policy Analysis of Conflict, April 27, 2017, 1, http://file.understandingconflict.org/file/2017/04/IPAC_Report_36.pdf.

Most recently, in July 2014, while in prison he convened a group of high-ranking JAT leaders and family members, vocalizing his support for ISIL. It is believed that support would come in the form of financial contribution and training of fighters to be sent to the frontlines in Syria.Witular, Rendi A. “Abu Bakar Ba’asyir calls on followers to support ISIL.” The Jakarta Post, July 14, 2014. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2014/07/14/abu-bakar-ba-asyir-calls-followers-support-isil.html. In June 2020, an ISIS-linked Indonesian coupled were convicted of an attempting to assassinate Indonesian Security Minister Wiranto in October 2019. During their trial, the couple admitted to being radicalized online and listening to Bashir’s speeches.Agence France-Presse, “Jakarta jails ISIS-linked couple who tried to assassinate minister,” Straits Times, June 26, 2020, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/jakarta-jails-isis-linked-couple-who-tried-to-assassinate-minister; “Wiranto: Indonesia security minister stabbed by ‘IS radical’,” BBC News, October 19, 2019,  https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-49997210.

On January 18, 2019, Indonesian President Joko Widodo announced that Bashir would be released early for humanitarian reasons but reversed his decision days later.Ninek Karmini, “Indonesia leader to free radical cleric behind Bali bombings,” Associated Press, January 18, 2009, https://apnews.com/e98a433cb091451fa0255a53c385f255. According to his lawyers, Bashir refused to fulfill the condition of pledging loyalty to the Republic of Indonesia and Pancasila, the official state ideology.“Indonesia cancels early release for Abu Bakar Bashir, radical cleric linked to Bali bombings,” Channel NewsAsia, January 23, 2019, https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/asia/indonesia-abu-bakar-bashir-early-release-cancelled-bali-bombings-11157000. In April 2020, his lawyer submitted a letter to the Indonesian government requesting Bashir be released due to his old age and a possible COVID-19 outbreak in the prison.Wahyudi Soeriaatmadja, “Radical Indonesian cleric Bashir asks for early release from prison, says age puts him in Covid-19 high-risk group,” Straits Times, April 3, 2020, https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/radical-cleric-bashir-asks-for-early-release-from-prison-says-age-puts-him-in-covid-19. Bashir was released on January 8, 2021, “as his prison term expired and ended,” according to an Indonesian corrections official. His incarceration was shortened due to sentence reductions typically granted to prisoners in Indonesia based on the length of their sentence, religious holiday exemptions, and illness. Bashir had accumulated 55 months of sentence reductions, according to an official at the West Java Law and Human Rights Agency.Agence France-Presse, “Indonesia set to free Bali bombing-linked cleric Bashir,” France 24, January 1, 2021, https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210104-indonesia-set-to-free-bali-bombing-linked-cleric-bashir; “Terror convict Ba’asyir to be released after serving sentence,” The Jakarta Post, January 5, 2020, https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2021/01/05/terror-convict-baasyir-to-be-released-after-serving-sentence.html.

Mohammed Deif was the leader of the Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades, the military wing of Hamas. He had been on Israel’s “most wanted” list for more than 20 years. Deif’s mentor was Yehya Ayyash, “the engineer” renowned for building Hamas bombs and other weaponry.“Profile: Hamas Commander Mohammed Deif,” BBC News, September 26, 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2284055.stm. Israel had attempted to kill Deif on multiple occasions, but he had escaped each time.Judah Ari Gross, “IDF twice tried, failed to kill Hamas military chief Muhammad Deif last week,” Times of Israel, May 19, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-twice-tried-failed-to-killed-hamas-military-chief-muhammad-deif-last-week/. On August 1, 2024, Israel confirmed that Deif died in a July 13 Israeli airstrike in the Gaza Strip.Melanie Lidman and Samy Magdy, “Israel says it has confirmed that chief of Hamas’ military wing was killed in a July strike in Gaza,” Associated Press, August 1, 2024, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-war-mohammed-deif-9524d7d5c8f7321f4d8c931fde664556.

Deif was born as Mohammed Diab Ibrahim al-Masri.“Profile: Hamas Commander Mohammed Deif,” BBC News, September 26, 2002, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2284055.stm. According to the Qassam Brigades’ website, he chose the name “Deif” because it means “guest”—an appropriate title for a man who moves “from village to village and from place to place” under the constant lookout of Israeli security forces.Jethro Mullen and Brian Todd, “Gaza Crisis: Who’s Who in Hamas,” CNN, July 31, 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/07/15/world/meast/hamas-leaders-whos-who/.

Israeli authorities credited Deif with masterminding the Qassam Brigades’ rocket-launching techniques, as well as their suicide bus bombings, soldier kidnappings, and tunnel-digging techniques. Sudarsan Raghavan, “Mohammed Deif, the shadowy figure who heads Hamas’s military wing,” Washington Post, August 2, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/mohammed-deif-the-shadowy-figure-who-heads-hamass-military-wing/2014/08/02/ed68c46e-1a85-11e4-85b6-c1451e622637_story.html. Many viewed Deif as a major obstacle to peace between the Palestinians and Israelis. During the Gaza-Israel war in the summer of 2014, Deif was responsible for launching attacks during humanitarian ceasefires.Sudarsan Raghavan, “Mohammed Deif, the shadowy figure who heads Hamas’s military wing,” Washington Post, August 2, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/mohammed-deif-the-shadowy-figure-who-heads-hamass-military-wing/2014/08/02/ed68c46e-1a85-11e4-85b6-c1451e622637_story.html. According to retired General Giora Eiland of the Israel Defense Forces, Deif was “against the cease-fire because he believes every day they continue to fight is another achievement for them.”Sudarsan Raghavan, “Mohammed Deif, the shadowy figure who heads Hamas’s military wing,” Washington Post, August 2, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/mohammed-deif-the-shadowy-figure-who-heads-hamass-military-wing/2014/08/02/ed68c46e-1a85-11e4-85b6-c1451e622637_story.html.

According to a 2014 assessment by Imad Falouji, a former senior Hamas leader, Deif was “very quiet. He keeps a low profile and lives hidden among the population. He moves with different passports and different identities…. He’s successful until now because the circle around him is very small. That is why he is still alive.” Sudarsan Raghavan, “Mohammed Deif, the shadowy figure who heads Hamas’s military wing,” Washington Post, August 2, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/mohammed-deif-the-shadowy-figure-who-heads-hamass-military-wing/2014/08/02/ed68c46e-1a85-11e4-85b6-c1451e622637_story.html. Ehud Yaari, a fellow at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, agreed: “Deif has been in a position of power the entire time,” he said. “Some may not have noticed it because he has been hiding in the shadows.”Nidal al-Mughrabi and Mayaan Lubell, “Has Hamas military chief, Mohammed Deif, escaped death again?” Reuters, August 20, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/20/us-mideast-gaza-deif-idUSKBN0GK1OW20140820.

Deif had been the target of Israeli airstrikes on numerous occasions, and had escaped each time, although not unharmed. He was partially paralyzed and wheelchair-bound, with only one arm and one eye. Sudarsan Raghavan, “Mohammed Deif, the shadowy figure who heads Hamas’s military wing,” Washington Post, August 2, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/mohammed-deif-the-shadowy-figure-who-heads-hamass-military-wing/2014/08/02/ed68c46e-1a85-11e4-85b6-c1451e622637_story.html. An Israeli targeted airstrike against Deif in the summer of 2014 resulted in the death of Deif’s wife and their two children.Nidal al-Mughrabi and Mayaan Lubell, “Has Hamas military chief, Mohammed Deif, escaped death again?” Reuters, August 20, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/08/20/us-mideast-gaza-deif-idUSKBN0GK1OW20140820.

In early May 2021, Israel’s supreme court was deliberating a decision on the eviction of Palestinians from their homes in the east Jerusalem neighborhood of Sheikh Jarrah in a legal dispute over land rights and rent payments.Tzvi Joffre, “Jerusalem Day festivities shaken by rockets, violent riots,” Jerusalem Post, May 10, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/jerusalem-day-riots-break-out-on-temple-mount-667735; Aaron Boxerman, “Supreme Court delays session on Sheikh Jarrah evictions amid Jerusalem violence,” Times of Israel, May 9, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/supreme-court-delays-session-on-sheikh-jarrah-evictions-amid-jerusalem-tensions/. On May 4, Deif issued his first public statement in over seven years. Deif stated that he was sending a “clear, final warning” that Israel would pay a “heavy price” at the hands of Hamas if Israel evicts Palestinians from their homes in Sheikh Jarrah.Fares Akram, “Shadowy Hamas commander warns Israel over Jerusalem,” Reuters, May 5, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/hamas-israel-jerusalem-middle-east-bc7ea9ca8e503e45f711c5c6ed8fb124. As Palestinian protested the expected decision on May 10, Hamas launched 150 rockets from Gaza toward Israeli border communities. Hamas demanded Israel remove its forces from both the Temple Mount and the Sheikh Jarah neighborhood and set a deadline of that evening.Felicia Schwartz and Dov Lieber, “Israel Strikes Hamas Targets After Rockets Fired at Jerusalem,” Wall Street Journal, May 10, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/israeli-military-says-rockets-fired-from-gaza-toward-jerusalem-11620646448; Nidal Al-mughrabi and Jeffrey Heller, “Israel airstrikes kill 20 in Gaza, Palestinians say, after militants fire rockets at Jerusalem,” Reuters, May 10, 2021, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-airstrikes-kill-20-gaza-palestinians-say-after-militants-fire-rockets-2021-05-10/.

In response to the rocket attacks, Israel launched a widescale military mobilization against Gaza called Operation Guardian of the Walls. Israel struck Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) targets throughout Gaza while Hamas fired more than 4,000 rockets toward Israel as the conflict continued into its second week.Anna Ahronheim, “Rocket fire continues despite talk of an imminent ceasefire,” Jerusalem Post, May 20, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/rocket-strikes-ashkelon-house-leaving-26-year-old-with-light-injuries-668657. Israel attempted to kill Deif at least twice during the first two weeks of the conflict, but he escaped both attempts.Judah Ari Gross, “IDF twice tried, failed to kill Hamas military chief Muhammad Deif last week,” Times of Israel, May 19, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/idf-twice-tried-failed-to-killed-hamas-military-chief-muhammad-deif-last-week/. On May 20, 2021, Ismail Ghaani, commander of the Quds Force of Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, wrote to Deif to praise Hamas’s actions while referring to Deif as a “living martyr.”Seth J. Frantzman, “IRGC head praises Hamas commander Deif as ‘living martyr’ – analysis,” Jerusalem Post, May 20, 2021, https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/irgc-head-praises-hamas-commander-deif-as-living-martyr-analysis-668656.

Hamas and Israel declared a ceasefire on May 21, 2021, after 11 days of fighting. On May 22, Hamas held a military parade in Gaza City to celebrate its perceived victory. A senior Hamas commander told Israeli media a new round of fighting would begin if Israel targeted either Deif or Hamas’s Gaza political leader, Yahya Sinwar.Wafaa Shurafa and Samy Magdy, “Hamas defiant with military parade, appearance of top leader,” Associated Press, May 22, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/hamas-israel-middle-east-health-coronavirus-pandemic-6ea82ef3966ccd0cee3dce815730d130; “Hamas’s Sinwar emerges to claim victory; group warns against hits on leaders,” Times of Israel, May 22, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamass-sinwar-emerges-to-claim-victory-group-warns-against-hits-on-leaders/.

On October 7, 2023, Hamas launched a barrage of rockets toward Israel, while Hamas fighters cross into Israel from Gaza via motorcycles, pickup trucks, paragliders, and speed boats in an unprecedented assault by the terror group during the Jewish Sabbath and holiday of Shemini Atzeret. Hamas had launched at least 3,500 rockets toward Israel by the end of the day. Hamas killed at least 1,200 people and captured approximately 240 civilian and military hostages.Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; “Israel revises Hamas attack death toll to ‘around 1,200,’” Reuters, November 10, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-revises-death-toll-oct-7-hamas-attack-around-1200-2023-11-10/. Deif called for all-out war on Israel and urged Palestinians in east Jerusalem and the West Bank to join in the fighting. He labeled Hamas’s attack “Operation Al-Aqsa Storm,” calling it a response to the Israeli-Egyptian blockade of Gaza, Israeli raids inside West Bank cities over the past year, and violence at the Al-Aqsa Mosque.Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; Seth J. Frantzman, “Hamas terror commander Deif calls for all out war on Israel,” Jerusalem Post, October 7, 2023, https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-762052. Israel’s military leaders named Sinwar, Deif, and deputy military leader Marwan Issa as their most-wanted in Gaza, warning all three were on a kill list. Israel accused the three of forming a military council that planned and executed the October 7 attack. “Samia Nakhoul, James Mackenzie and Phil Stewart, “Insight: Israel’s most wanted: the three Hamas leaders in Gaza it aims to kill,” Reuters, December 1, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israels-most-wanted-three-hamas-commanders-gaza-it-must-kill-2023-12-01/.

In December 2023, Israeli media reported Deif and Sinwar were hiding in Khan Younis in southern Gaza.“Hamas’s Yahya Sinwar fled northern Gaza in IDF humanitarian convoy,” Jerusalem Post, last updated December 10, 2023, https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-777371. By December 10, Israeli forces were focusing on the areas of Jabaliya and Shajaiye in northern Gaza, as well as Khan Younis. Israel had taken control of the area surrounding Hamas’s former headquarters in Gaza City. Tzahi Hanegbi, director of Israel’s national security council, rejected suggestions that Gaza’s Hamas leaders could be sent into exile, like Yasser Arafat and the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization were exiled from Lebanon in the 1980s. “Israel says it will continue to search for Hamas’s leader.,” New York Times, December 11, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/live/2023/12/11/world/israel-hamas-gaza-war-news/israel-says-it-will-continue-to-search-for-hamass-leader?smid=url-share. The European Union added Deif to its list of designated terrorists on December 8. The European Union also added Issa.“Fight against terrorism: Council adds two individuals to the EU terrorist list in response to the 7 October attacks,” European Council – Council of the European Union, December 8, 2023, https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2023/12/08/fight-against-terrorism-council-adds-two-individuals-to-the-eu-terrorist-list-in-response-to-the-7-october-attacks/.

Over the weekend of March 9-10, 2024, Israeli warplanes killed Issa in a building in the Nuseirat refugee camp in central Gaza. Issa represented the highest-level Hamas death since the start of the Hamas-Israel war in October 2023. According to Jake Sullivan, national security adviser to U.S. President Joe Biden, the United States would help Israel locate other Hamas leaders and “justice will come for them too.”Adam Rasgon, “Israel Says It Targeted Marwan Issa, a Top Hamas Leader in Gaza,” New York Times, March 11, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/11/world/middleeast/israel-strike-marwan-issa-hamas.html; Ellen Mitchell, “Top Hamas commander killed in Israeli airstrike: White House,” Hill, March 18, 2024, https://thehill.com/policy/defense/4539947-top-hamas-commander-killed-in-israeli-airstrike-white-house/. Sullivan claimed Hamas’s Gaza leadership likely remained in hiding in Gaza’s underground tunnel network.Ellen Mitchell, “Top Hamas commander killed in Israeli airstrike: White House,” Hill, March 18, 2024, https://thehill.com/policy/defense/4539947-top-hamas-commander-killed-in-israeli-airstrike-white-house/.

On July 13, 2024, an Israeli airstrike targeted Deif and Rafa Salama, commander of Hamas’s Khan Younis Brigade, in the Gaza Strip. Israel could not immediately confirm Deif had died in the strike. According to the Hamas-run Gaza Health Ministry, the strike killed 90 civilians and wounded 300 others. According to Israeli sources, the target had been a Hamas military compound in an open area where “terrorists hid among civilians.” Nidal Al-Mughrabi , Hatem Khaled and Maayan Lubell, “Gaza officials say 90 Palestinians killed as Israel targets Hamas military chief,” Reuters, July 13, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/dozens-palestinians-killed-or-wounded-israeli-attack-khan-younis-hamas-says-2024-07-13/. Hamas accused Israel of targeting civilians and denied Deif had died in the strike. The Israeli government acknowledged that it could not confirm Deif’s death. Nidal Al-Mughrabi , Hatem Khaled and Maayan Lubell, “Gaza officials say 90 Palestinians killed as Israel targets Hamas military chief,” Reuters, July 13, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/dozens-palestinians-killed-or-wounded-israeli-attack-khan-younis-hamas-says-2024-07-13/ While IDF Chief of Staff Lieutenant General Herzi Halevi acknowledged that the outcome of the strike remained unclear, he accused Hamas of trying to cover up the results of the strike.Emanuel Fabian, “IDF chief says Hamas is ‘trying to hide’ outcome of strike on Muhammed Deif,” Times of Israel, July 14, 2024, https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/idf-chief-says-hamas-is-trying-to-hide-outcome-of-strike-on-muhammed-deif/. In the week following the strike, Israel confirmed Salama’s death. The IDF also released recorded phone conversations of Gazans praising Deif’s death, though it remained unconfirmed. In the recordings, Gazans also wished for the death of Sinwar. According to media reports, U.S. Ambassador to Israel Jack Lew confirmed “indications” of Deif’s death.“IDF releases tape of Gazans lauding death of Mohammed Deif,” Jewish News Syndicate, July 19, 2024, https://www.jns.org/idf-releases-tape-of-gazans-lauding-death-of-mohammed-deif/. On July 21, the IDF’s spokesperson for Arabic media, Colonel Avichay Adraee, said that all intelligence indicates Deif died in the strike.Yoav Zitun and Einav Halabi, “More indications Deif dead, IDF Arabic Spokesperson says,” Ynet News, July 21, 2024, https://www.ynetnews.com/article/bjjp0q900c. On August 1, the IDF confirmed Deif’s death in the July 13 airstrike.Melanie Lidman and Samy Magdy, “Israel says it has confirmed that chief of Hamas’ military wing was killed in a July strike in Gaza,” Associated Press, August 1, 2024, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-war-mohammed-deif-9524d7d5c8f7321f4d8c931fde664556.

On February 1, 2024, the U.S. Department of Justice issued an indictment charging Deif and five other senior Hamas leaders with terrorism charges related to October 7. According to the indictment, the six leaders played central roles in planning, supporting, and perpetrating Hamas’s terrorist atrocities of October 7. In addition to Deif, the indictment charged Sinwar, Issa, Ismail Haniyeh, Khaled Meshaal, and Ali Baraka. The complaint specifically charged the six with conspiracy to murder U.S. citizens, conspiracy to finance terrorism, conspiracy to use weapons of mass destruction resulting in death, and conspiracy to support terrorism resulting in death. The complaint cited Hamas terrorist acts dating back to 1996. According to the Justice Department, the indictment was kept under seal to prevent Haniyeh and others from going into hiding. The Justice Department unsealed the indictment on September 3, 2024, after determining there was no longer sufficient reason to keep the indictment sealed after Haniyeh’s death that July.“Justice Department Announces Terrorism Charges Against Senior Leaders of Hamas,” U.S. Department of Justice, September 3, 2024, https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/justice-department-announces-terrorism-charges-against-senior-leaders-hamas.

On November 21, 2024, the Pre-Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Court (ICC) issued an arrest warrant for Deif, as well as for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and former Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant. The ICC accuses Deif of crimes against humanity of murder; extermination; torture; and rape and other form of sexual violence; as well as the war crimes of murder, cruel treatment, torture; taking hostages; outrages upon personal dignity; and rape and other form of sexual violence. According to the ICC, there are “reasonable grounds” Deif, Netanyahu, and Gallant bear “criminal responsibility” for alleged war crimes and crimes against humanity during the subsequent war between Israel and Hamas after Hamas’s October 7 attack.David Gritten, “Arrest warrants issued for Netanyahu, Gallant and Hamas commander over alleged war crimes,” BBC News, November 21, 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cly2exvx944o: “Situation in the State of Palestine: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I rejects the State of Israel’s challenges to jurisdiction and issues warrants of arrest for Benjamin Netanyahu and Yoav Gallant,” International Criminal Court, November 21, 2024, https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-state-palestine-icc-pre-trial-chamber-i-rejects-state-israels-challenges; “Situation in the State of Palestine: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I issues warrant of arrest for Mohammed Diab Ibrahim Al-Masri (Deif),” November 21, 2024, https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-state-palestine-icc-pre-trial-chamber-i-issues-warrant-arrest-mohammed-diab-ibrahim. According to the ICC prosecution, the court is “not in a position to determine” whether Deif is dead or alive.David Gritten, “Arrest warrants issued for Netanyahu, Gallant and Hamas commander over alleged war crimes,” BBC News, November 21, 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cly2exvx944o: “Situation in the State of Palestine: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I rejects the State of Israel’s challenges to jurisdiction and issues warrants of arrest for Benjamin Netanyahu and Yoav Gallant,” International Criminal Court, November 21, 2024, https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-state-palestine-icc-pre-trial-chamber-i-rejects-state-israels-challenges; “Situation in the State of Palestine: ICC Pre-Trial Chamber I issues warrant of arrest for Mohammed Diab Ibrahim Al-Masri (Deif),” November 21, 2024, https://www.icc-cpi.int/news/situation-state-palestine-icc-pre-trial-chamber-i-issues-warrant-arrest-mohammed-diab-ibrahim.

Moussa Mohammed Abu Marzouk is a senior member of Hamas’s political bureau and deputy leader of Hamas’s Diaspora Office.“Hamas elects former head Khaled Meshal as diaspora chief,” New Arab, April 13, 2021, https://www.newarab.com/news/hamas-elects-former-head-khaled-meshal-diaspora-chief. Marzouk is a founding member of Hamas who previously served as its deputy chair under former Hamas leader Khaled Meshaal.“Moussa Abu Marzouk,” European Council on Foreign Relations, accessed November 17, 2023, https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/moussa_abu_marzouk/; Associated Press, “AP Interview: Hamas No. 2 Rejects Gaza Arm Halt,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 24, 2012, http://web.archive.org/web/20121124150524/http://www.sfgate.com/news/world/article/AP-Interview-Hamas-No-2-rejects-Gaza-arms-halt-4063103.php; “Mousa Abu Marzook,” Hamas, accessed November 16, 2018, http://hamas.ps/en/politicalofficemember/24/mousa-abu-marzook. Marzouk has been an outspoken advocate of Hamas’s insistence on maintaining its weapons and the group’s refusal to recognize Israel.Associated Press, “AP Interview: Hamas No. 2 rejects Gaza arms halt,” San Francisco Gate, November 24, 2012, https://web.archive.org/web/20121124150524/http://www.sfgate.com/news/world/article/AP-Interview-Hamas-No-2-rejects-Gaza-arms-halt-4063103.php; Adnan Abu Amer, “Hamas’ Abu Marzouk says recognizing Israel a ‘red line,’” Al-Monitor, May 5, 2014, http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/05/interview-abu-marzouk-hamas-israel-fatah-reconciliation.html. At one point, Marzouk had been considered as a replacement for Meshaal.Alon Diamant-Cohen, “Abu Marzouk said set to replace Mashaal as Hamas leader-in-exile,” Times of Israel, September 24, 2012, https://www.timesofisrael.com/abu-marzouk-said-set-to-replace-mashaal-as-hamas-leader-in-exile/. Marzouk lost a May 2017 Hamas election to replace Meshaal and has since continued to serve as a senior member of the group’s political bureau.“Ismail Haniyeh elected new Hamas chief,” Hurriyet Daily News, May 6, 2017, http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/ismail-haniyeh-elected-new-hamas-chief-112803; “Mousa Abu Marzook,” Hamas, accessed November 16, 2018, http://hamas.ps/en/politicalofficemember/24/mousa-abu-marzook.

Marzouk coordinated and financed Hamas activities while living in the United States between 1988 and 1993. “Second Superseding Indictment,” United States District Court Northern District of Illinois Eastern Division, August 2, 2003, http://www.justice.gov/usao/iln/indict/2004/marzook_et_al.pdf. He operated numerous U.S. bank accounts from which he disbursed money to foreign accounts in support of Hamas's activities. “Second Superseding Indictment,” United States District Court Northern District of Illinois Eastern Division, August 2, 2003, http://www.justice.gov/usao/iln/indict/2004/marzook_et_al.pdf. He was also the director of the United Association for Studies and Research, which was tied to individuals attempting to fund Hamas's terror activities. Marzouk has been tied to numerous groups, such as the Holy Land Foundation and INFOCOM, which have allegedly played significant roles in funding Hamas.

In a 2012 interview with the Jewish publication the Forward, Marzouk remarked that Hamas would treat any agreement reached by Israel and the Palestinian Authority as a hudna, or “ceasefire,” and not a permanent agreement. Marzouk declared that “[Hamas would] not recognize Israel as a state.” The Forward’s Larry Cohler-Esses remarked that Marzouk used the interview as an opportunity to espouse Hamas ideology. Larry Cohler-Esses, “Hamas wouldn’t honor a treaty, top leader says,” Forward, April 1, 2012, http://forward.com/articles/155054/hamas-wouldn-t-honor-a-treaty-top-leader-says/?p=all.

Marzouk was born in Rafah in the Gaza Strip. His family was originally from Yavne, Israel, but was forced to move to the Rafah refugee camp in 1948.“Senior Hamas Leader: Israel Exists,” Ynet News, February 20, 2006, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3218829,00.html. In Gaza, Marzouk first became involved with the Muslim Brotherhood, which would later give birth to Hamas.“Senior Hamas Leader: Israel Exists,” Ynet News, February 20, 2006, http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3218829,00.html. In 1976, he earned an engineering degree from Ein Shams University in Cairo.“Individual Terrorists: Moussa Aba Marzook,” The Investigative Project on Terrorism, April 20, 2012, http://www.investigativeproject.org/profile/106. In the late 1970s, Marzouk moved to the United States and maintained a residence there for 14 years, mostly in Virginia.Steven Greenhouse, “US Detains Arab Tied to Militants,” New York Times, July 28, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/28/world/us-detains-arab-tied-to-militants.html; Charles W. Hall and Robert O’Harrow Jr., “VIRGINIA MAN SUSPECTED OF TERRORISM KNOWN FOR ANONYMITY,” Washington Post, August 8, 1995, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1995/08/08/virginia-man-suspected-of-terrorism-known-for-anonymity/2944d4cc-a359-456f-aefb-3443757acf9f/. From Virginia, Marzouk created and led multiple pro-Palestinian organizations.“Moussa Abu Marzouk,” European Council on Foreign Relations, accessed November 17, 2023, https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/moussa_abu_marzouk/. In 1991, he was elected chairman of the Hamas political bureau and moved to Jordan to lead Hamas’s political headquarters.“Moussa Abu Marzouk,” ProCon.org, April 8, 2008, http://israelipalestinian.procon.org/view.source.php?sourceID=4918. In June 1995, Jordan expelled Marzouk, claiming that he undermined peace efforts between Jordan and Israel.Steven Greenhouse, “US Detains Arab Tied to Militants,” The New York Times, July 28, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/28/world/us-detains-arab-tied-to-militants.html. On July 28, 1995, Marzouk was extradited to the United States, where he was detained upon arrival at John F. Kennedy Airport in New York. American and Israeli officials alleged that Marzouk had recently traveled to Iran, Syria, Sudan, and Egypt to promote fundraising activities for Hamas. Officials claimed that Marzouk had not been arrested previously because he had only “recently [been] put on the watch list.”Steven Greenhouse, “US Detains Arab Tied to Militants,” New York Times, July 28, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/28/world/us-detains-arab-tied-to-militants.html; “Moussa Abu Marzouk,” European Council on Foreign Relations, accessed November 17, 2023, https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/moussa_abu_marzouk/. He was held for two years in the United States as a suspected terrorist, and because of his imprisonment conceded the chairmanship of Hamas’s political bureau to Khaled Meshaal.George Baghdadi, “Hamas is Still Defiant,” Time, December 10, 2001, http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,187759,00.html; Adam Rasgon, “Who Will be Hamas’s Next Leader?” Jerusalem Post, February 11, 2017, https://www.jpost.com/Arab-Israeli-Conflict/Who-will-be-Hamass-next-leader-481092. Marzouk was then extradited to Jordan in 1997. There, he became deputy leader of Hamas’s political bureau. After Jordan expelled Marzouk and other Hamas leaders in 1999, he returned to Damascus, Syria.Adam Rasgon, “Who Will be Hamas’s Next Leader?” Jerusalem Post, February 11, 2017, https://www.jpost.com/Arab-Israeli-Conflict/Who-will-be-Hamass-next-leader-481092.

The U.S. Department of Treasury designated Marzouk a Specially Designated Terrorist (SDT) in 1995, and a Specially Designated Global Terrorist (SDGT) in 2003. Although he obtained a Green Card in 1990, Marzouk holds and is believed to travel on a Yemeni passport.Steven Greenhouse, “US Detains Arab Tied to Militants,” New York Times, July 28, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/28/world/us-detains-arab-tied-to-militants.html. On August 19, 2004, U.S. authorities arrested Muhammad Hamid Khalil Salah and Abdelhaleem Hasan Abdelraziq Ashqar on racketeering charges for participation in a 15-year conspiracy in the United States and abroad to illegally finance terrorist activities in Israel, the West Bank, and the Gaza Strip. The Justice Department accused Marzouk of involvement in the conspiracy and issued a warrant for his arrest. At the time, authorities believed Marzouk resided in Damascus, Syria.“CHICAGO AND WASHINGTON, D.C., AREA MEN AMONG THREE INDICTED IN RACKETEERING CONSPIRACY IN U.S. TO FINANCE HAMAS TERROR ABROAD,” U.S. Department of Justice, August 20, 2004, https://www.justice.gov/archive/opa/pr/2004/August/04_crm_571.htm.

Marzouk left in Syria in 2012 when Hamas vacated the country during the Syrian civil war.“Moussa Abu Marzouk,” European Council on Foreign Relations, accessed November 17, 2023, https://ecfr.eu/special/mapping_palestinian_politics/moussa_abu_marzouk/. According to Hamas, Marzouk continued to move around Egypt, Qatar, and the Gaza Strip.Steven Greenhouse, “US Detains Arab Tied to Militants,” The New York Times, July 28, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/07/28/world/us-detains-arab-tied-to-militants.html; George Baghdadi, “Hamas is Still Defiant,” Time Magazine, December 10, 2001, http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,187759,00.html. After years of traveling between the United States and the Middle East, Marzouk resided in New Cairo, Egypt, as of 2012.“How Historic Interview was Arranged,” Forward, April 19, 2012, http://forward.com/articles/155056/how-historic-interview-was-arranged/. He subsequently moved to Qatar, where Hamas’s top leadership reside. In May 2017, Marzouk participated in the formation of a revision of Hamas’s 1988 charter, meant to soften Hamas’s image. The revised edition of its founding political document removed blatantly antisemitic sections as well as references to Hamas’s origins within the Muslim Brotherhood. Notwithstanding the removal of antisemitic components of the document, Hamas leaders said upon the revised edition the new document does not replace the original 1988 charter, which remains in effect.“New Hamas policy document ‘aims to soften image,’” BBC News, May 1, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-39744551; Adam Rasgon and David D. Kirkpatrick, “What Was Hamas Thinking?,” New Yorker, October 13, 2023, https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/what-was-hamas-thinking. The revised document also reaffirmed Hamas’s commitment to “armed resistance” against Israel in its pursuit of the “liberation” of Palestine “from the river to the sea.”“A Document of General Principles & Policies,” Hamas Media Office, accessed May 2, 2017, http://hamas.ps/ar/uploads/documents/06c77206ce934064ab5a901fa8bfef44.pdf;
“New Hamas policy document ‘aims to soften image,’” BBC News, May 1, 2017, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-39744551. According to an October 2023 interview with Marzouk, the revisions did not soften Hamas’s core positions, which call for full Palestinian independence or a return of all Palestinian refugees to Israel. “We never hid these slogans,” he told New Yorker magazine in 2023.Adam Rasgon and David D. Kirkpatrick, “What Was Hamas Thinking?,” New Yorker, October 13, 2023, https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/what-was-hamas-thinking.

Marzouk continues to hold a senior leadership role in Hamas and acts as an international spokesman. During internal elections in April 2021, Hamas elected Marzouk as deputy chair of its diaspora office, under Meshaal as chair.“Hamas elects former head Khaled Meshal as diaspora chief,” New Arab, April 13, 2021, https://www.newarab.com/news/hamas-elects-former-head-khaled-meshal-diaspora-chief. Between May 10 and May 21, 2021, Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ) launched more than 4,000 rockets toward Israel, killing 12 and wounding more than 300.Aaron Boxerman and staff, “Hamas chief says war foils Israel’s attempts at Arab coexistence, normalization,” Times of Israel, May 21, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-chief-says-war-foils-israels-attempts-at-arab-coexistence-normalization/. Early in the conflict on May 12, Marzouk allegedly offered a ceasefire during a telephone conversation with Russian Deputy Foreign Minister Mikhail Bogdanov. Marzouk conditioned the ceasefire on Israel ending its military strikes on Gaza and on the international community pressuring Israel to end “military actions” at the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem.Staff and Aaron Boxerman, “Hamas official tells Russia: We’re ready for ceasefire with Israel,” Times of Israel, May 12, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-official-tells-russia-were-ready-for-ceasefire-with-israel/. Israel responded it was not interested in a ceasefire at the time. Speaking after with Hamas media, Marzouk said the Europeans were pressuring Hamas to stop firing short-range missiles at Israel. Marzouk said he told the Europeans Hamas would cease firing short-range missiles and use long-range missiles instead.Staff and Aaron Boxerman, “Hamas official tells Russia: We’re ready for ceasefire with Israel,” Times of Israel, May 12, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-official-tells-russia-were-ready-for-ceasefire-with-israel/. >As reports of a ceasefire emerged on May 20, Marzouk told the Lebanese Al-Mayadeen network he expected the ceasefire efforts to be successful, but Hamas would respond with “escalation for escalation.”Aaron Boxerman and staff, “Senior Hamas official: Ceasefire can be reached within ‘one or two days,’” Times of Israel, May 20, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/senior-hamas-official-ceasefire-can-be-reached-within-one-or-two-days/. A ceasefire went into effect on May 21.Aaron Boxerman and staff, “Hamas chief says war foils Israel’s attempts at Arab coexistence, normalization,” Times of Israel, May 21, 2021, https://www.timesofisrael.com/hamas-chief-says-war-foils-israels-attempts-at-arab-coexistence-normalization/.

Marzouk continues to reside in Qatar, where he, Hamas political leader Ismail Haniyeh, and Meshaal are reportedly worth a combined $11 billion. Hamas’s leaders maintain offices and enjoy freedom of movement in Qatar. They have been photographed at luxury hotels, on private jets, and at diplomatic clubs around Qatar’s capital of Doha.Isabel Vincent and Benjamin Weinthal, “Hamas leaders worth staggering $11B revel in luxury — while Gaza’s people suffer,” New York Post, November 7, 2023, https://nypost.com/2023/11/07/news/hamas-leaders-worth-11bn-live-luxury-lives-in-qatar/.

Hamas’s presence in Qatar drew international attention after Hamas’s surprise attack on Israel on October 7, 2023. During that attack, Hamas fighters blew up portions of the Gaza-Israel fence and overran the border, killing at least 1,200 people and kidnapping at least 240 men, women, and children. In response, Israel declared war on Hamas and launched a ground invasion of the Gaza Strip.Lauren Frayer, “Israel revises down its death toll from the Oct. 7 Hamas attacks to about 1,200,” NPR, November 11, 2023, https://www.npr.org/2023/11/11/1212458974/israel-revises-death-toll-hamas-attacks-oct-7. Hamas leaders watched the attack unfold from Haniyeh’s office in Doha, Qatar.Matt Drake, “How Hamas leader Ismail Haniyeh watched attack on Israel on TV from his office in Qatar as he celebrated with other officials,” Daily Mail (London), October 8, 2023, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12608271/How-Hamas-leader-Ismail-Haniyeh-watched-attack-Israel-TV-office-Qatar-celebrated-officials.html; Hamas Online, Telegram, October 7, 2023.

According to Marzouk, Hamas’s military wing had kept details of the impending attack secret from the political leadership, but they were aware of general plans for the attack. Marzouk told New Yorker magazine, “We were surprised by the date but not by the actions.”Adam Rasgon and David D. Kirkpatrick, “What Was Hamas Thinking?,” New Yorker, October 13, 2023, https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/what-was-hamas-thinking. Marzouk has argued that “women, children and civilians were exempt” during the October 7 attack, despite contradictory video evidence and testimonials from Hamas attackers themselves targeting civilians.Feras Kilani, “Hamas leader refuses to acknowledge killing of civilians in Israel,” BBC News, November 7, 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67321241. Marzouk claimed that Hamas military leader Mohammed Deif specifically instructed fighters not to kill women, children, or old men. Marzouk told the BBC that Hamas would release its hostages, but Israel needed to first stop its bombing of Gaza.Feras Kilani, “Hamas leader refuses to acknowledge killing of civilians in Israel,” BBC News, November 7, 2023, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-67321241.

Marzouk justified the October 7 attack by saying Israel’s government had grown increasingly rightwing, expanding West Bank settlements and increasing the Jewish presence in Jerusalem. He further claimed the Palestinians had spoken to Americans, Europeans, and other international actors since 1948 with no results. He declared the Palestinian Authority, which governs Palestinian areas of the West Bank, to be dead. According to Marzouk, the October 7 attack was “the biggest achievement.”Adam Rasgon and David D. Kirkpatrick, “What Was Hamas Thinking?,” New Yorker, October 13, 2023, https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/what-was-hamas-thinking.

Sheikh Naim Qassem is the secretary-general of Lebanese terrorist group Hezbollah. He is a Shiite Lebanese cleric and politician who formerly served as the group’s deputy secretary-general under Hassan Nasrallah. Nasrallah died in a September 27, 2024, Israeli airstrike. Hezbollah elected Qassem a month later on October 29.“Hezbollah names Naim Qassem as new leader, Israel says he won’t last long,” Reuters, October 29, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollah-elects-naim-qassem-succeed-slain-head-nasrallah-2024-10-29/.

Born in Kfar fila in southern Lebanon, Qassem was among the founding members of Hezbollah in 1982. Qassem served as Hezbollah’s second-in-command since 1992, when the group entered the political realm. He is widely credited with being Hezbollah’s leading media personality. In 2004, he published a history of Hezbollah that included an autobiographical account of his role in the organization. Two years later, it was translated into numerous languages, including English, and was titled “Hezbollah: The Story from Within.” “The Man in Nasrallah's Shadow: A Profile of Sheikh Naim Qasim,” The Jamestown Foundation, Volume: 3 Issue: 33, August 23, 2006, http://www.jamestown.org/programs/tm/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=882&no_cache=1#.VPi1juH0eQF.

Qassem is one of the founders of a Lebanese Muslim student union that was established in the 1970s. Qassem joined the Amal movement when it was led by Imam Musa Sadr. Qassem was also the head of the Islamic religious education association from 1974 to 1988. Qassem participated in foundation activities of Hezbollah and was appointed deputy secretary-general of Hezbollah in 1992.

On October 7, 2023, one day after the 50th anniversary of the Yom Kippur War, Hamas—with Iranian support—launched a multi-pronged attack on Israel, killing 1,200 and taking over 240 hostages into Gaza.Josef Federman and Issam Adwan, “Hamas surprise attack out of Gaza stuns Israel and leaves hundreds dead in fighting, retaliation,” Associated Press, October 7, 2023, https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinians-gaza-hamas-rockets-airstrikes-tel-aviv-11fb98655c256d54ecb5329284fc37d2; “Israeli forces conducting ‘wide-scale strikes’ on Hamas centers in Gaza. Here’s everything you need to know,” CNN, October 9, 2023, https://www.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/israel-hamas-gaza-attack-10-09-23/h_adebb4147fc4a83751908555ec54b8c0; Lauren Frayer, “Israel revises down its death toll from the Oct. 7 Hamas attacks to about 1,200,” NPR, November 11, 2023, https://www.npr.org/2023/11/11/1212458974/israel-revises-death-toll-hamas-attacks-oct-7. On October 8, Hezbollah began a months-long campaign launching rockets, drones, and missiles toward northern Israel.“Israel, Hezbollah exchange artillery, rocket fire,” Reuters, October 8, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/israel-strikes-lebanon-after-hezbollah-hits-shebaa-farms-2023-10-08/. During the first few days of the war, Hezbollah sent messages to Israel that it was ready to join the conflict if Israel were to launch a ground assault on Gaza.Dion Nissenbaum and Ari Flanzraich, “At Israel-Lebanon Border, Fears Grow of a Second Front,” Wall Street Journal, October 12, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/at-israel-lebanon-border-fears-grow-of-a-second-battlefront-cda25139. Nasrallah praised Hamas for its strike against Israel, calling it a message against normalization with Israel.Rory Jones, “Hezbollah Praises Hamas Attack, Warns Against Normalizing Ties With Israel,” October 7, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/livecoverage/israel-hamas-gaza-rockets-attack-palestinians/card/hezbollah-praises-hamas-attack-warns-against-normalising-ties-with-israel-rbqLpR9QDzCyiUGQw0xl. On October 11, the United states announced it was sending two aircraft carriers to the Mediterranean to provide support and deter foreign intervention against Israel. Specifically, the United States warned Hezbollah against intervening in the war.Vivian Salama, “U.S. Looks at Risks of Deeper Involvement With Israel’s War on Hamas,” Wall Street Journal, October 11, 2023, https://www.wsj.com/world/middle-east/u-s-looks-at-risks-of-deeper-involvement-with-israels-war-on-hamas-eaf00b73. On October 13, Qassem proclaimed that Hezbollah had a plan and would carry it out at the appropriate time. According to Qassem, Hezbollah was “fully ready” to join the war, and international warnings would not affect its decision.“Hezbollah says calls for it not to intervene in war ‘will have no effect,’” Reuters, October 13, 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollah-says-when-time-comes-any-action-we-will-carry-it-out-2023-10-13/. In a November 2023 interview with NBC News, Qassem threatened that Hezbollah would increase its attacks on Israel if Israel continued targeting the Gaza Strip. He accused the United States of being “the mastermind” of Israel’s campaign in Gaza.Matt Bradley and Natasha Lebedeva, “Iran-backed groups threaten to expand Gaza war as they step up attacks on Israel and U.S.,” NBC News, November 7, 2023, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/hezbollah-iran-attacks-israel-gaza-war-death-toll-rcna123959.

Hezbollah continued to launch near-daily rocket attacks into northern Israel into 2024. In an exclusive interview with NBC News on April 18, 2024, Qassem blamed Israel and the United States for perpetuating a cycle of violence in Lebanon. Qassem claimed that Hezbollah did not seek escalation with Israel but would respond to Israeli actions in Lebanon. He also criticized Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates for aiding Israel in defending against an Iranian missile attack over the previous weekend.Matt Bradley, Ziad Jaber, and Natasha Lebedeva, “Hezbollah's second-in-command insists it is not seeking war, but would respond to Israeli escalation,” NBC News, April 18, 2024, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/hezbollah-naim-qassem-exclusive-interview-war-escalation-rcna148332.

On June 12, 2024, Hezbollah launched 215 projectiles toward Israel, targeting an Israeli military headquarters and a military air surveillance station. It was one of Hezbollah’s largest attacks since October 2023.Euan Ward, “Hezbollah Launches Rocket Barrage After Israeli Strike Kills a Commander,” New York Times, June 12, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/12/world/middleeast/hezbollah-rockets-israel-strike.html. In response, on June 14, Israel launched a rocket attack, targeting the home of Hezbollah Executive Assembly leader Hashem Safieddine in Deir Qanoun in southern Lebanon. According to media sources, the strike targeted Safieddine, Qassem, and Hezbollah co-founder and former leader Subhi al-Tufayli. Shortly after, an unidentified Hezbollah spokesman claimed the building was empty when it was struck down.“Two killed and at least 20 injured in Israeli strike near Deir Qanoun,” L’Orient Today, June 14, 2024, https://today.lorientlejour.com/article/1417298/paramedic-killed-and-at-least-20-injured-in-israeli-strike-near-deir-qanoun.html.

On September 27, 2024, an Israeli airstrike targeted Hezbollah’s headquarters in Beirut, killing Nasrallah and Abbas Nilforoshan, a U.S.-sanctioned senior member of Iran’s IRGC who served as a military adviser during the Syrian civil war. On September 28, Israel confirmed Nasrallah died in the strike. A few hours later, Hezbollah confirmed Nasrallah’s death, calling him a “sacred martyr.”Bassem Mroue, “Israel strikes Hezbollah in a huge blast targeting the militant group’s leader,” Associated Press, September 28, 2024, https://apnews.com/article/lebanon-israel-hezbollah-airstrikes-suburb-617575d9c5d7c711bc02e7b81d2ba4ad; Mick Krever, Sarah El Sirgany, Eyad Kourdi, Mostafa Salem and Jeremy Diamond, “Israel killed Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah in Beirut strike, group confirms,” CNN, September 28, 2024, https://www.cnn.com/2024/09/28/middleeast/hezbollah-nasrallah-killed-israel-strikes-intl/index.html. During a September 30 televised broadcast from an undisclosed location, Qassem announced that Hezbollah would select a new secretary-general and replenish its leadership ranks as soon as possible. Regarding Israel, Qassem pledged that the battle may be long, but Hezbollah would triumph. According to Qassem, Hezbollah continued to send rockets almost 100 miles deep into Israel. He warned that Hezbollah was ready to face an Israeli ground invasion in Lebanon and the group’s rocket attacks were the “bare minimum” of the group’s response to Israel.“Lebanon’s Hezbollah will pick new leader at earliest opportunity, says its deputy chief,” Reuters, September 30, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/lebanons-hezbollah-will-pick-new-leader-earliest-opportunity-says-its-deputy-2024-09-30/.

After Nasrallah’s death, reports circulated that Safieddine would become the group’s new leader. However, Safieddine died in an Israeli strike in Beirut in early October 2024.“Hezbollah’s Hashem Safieddine, heir apparent to Nasrallah, killed in Israeli attack, group says,” Reuters, October 23, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollahs-hashem-safieddine-heir-apparent-nasrallah-killed-israeli-attack-group-2024-10-23/. On October 29, Hezbollah’s Shura Council elected Qassem as Hezbollah’s new secretary-general. Israeli officials immediately responded with threats that Qassem would meet the same fate as his predecessor. Israeli Defense Minister Yoav Gallant posted with a picture of Qassem on X with the comment, “Not for long.” The official Israeli government X account posted: “His tenure in this position may be the shortest in the history of this terrorist organization if he follows in the footsteps of his predecessors Hassan Nasrallah and Hashem Safieddine.”“Hezbollah names Naim Qassem as new leader, Israel says he won’t last long,” Reuters, October 29, 2024, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hezbollah-elects-naim-qassem-succeed-slain-head-nasrallah-2024-10-29/.

After 13 months of conflict, Lebanon and Israel agreed to a ceasefire on November 27, 2024. Hezbollah was not party to the ceasefire, but Lebanon agreed to “prevent Hezbollah and all other armed groups in the territory of Lebanon from carrying out any operations against Israel.”“What we know about Israel-Hezbollah ceasefire deal,” BBC News, November 27, 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx2d3gj9ewxo. Israel agreed it would not carry out offensive military operations against Lebanese targets. Israel also agreed to a phased withdrawal of its forces from southern Lebanon within 60 days.Willem Marx, “Israel and Hezbollah have a ceasefire agreement. Here’s what it says,” NPR, November 28, 2024, https://www.npr.org/2024/11/28/g-s1-36146/israel-hezbollah-lebanon-ceasefire-middle-east-crisis. The deadline for Israel’s withdrawal was later extended to February 17, 2025. On February 16, Qassem issued a warning for Israel to fully withdraw by February 17 or Hezbollah “will deal with the occupation.”“Hezbollah to Israel: Withdraw by tomorrow or else,” Jewish News Service, February 17, 2025, https://www.jns.org/hezbollah-to-israel-withdraw-by-tomorrow-or-else/.

On February 23, 2025, Qassem delivered a televised address from an undisclosed location during the funeral for Nasrallah in Beirut. Qassem called on Lebanon’s government to force Israel to fully withdraw from southern Lebanon. He also warned that Hezbollah chooses when to fire and when to be patient as it “sees fit.”“Massive crowds mourn Hezbollah’s slain leader Nasrallah,” Reuters, February 24, 2025, https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/tens-thousands-mourn-hezbollahs-slain-leader-nasrallah-mass-funeral-2025-02-23/.

Talal Hamiyah is a top military leader of Hezbollah in charge of orchestrating its operations abroad. Hamiyah heads Hezbollah’s External Security Organization (ESO). “Treasury Designates Hizballah Leadership,” U.S. Department of Treasury, September 13, 2012, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1709.aspx. The ESO is responsible for planning and executing Hezbollah’s terrorist activities outside of Lebanon. “Treasury Designates Hizballah Leadership,” U.S. Department of Treasury, September 13, 2012, http://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/tg1709.aspx. On October 10, 2017, the U.S. government offered a reward of up to $7 million for information on Hamiyah.“Rewards for Justice - Reward Offer for Information on Hizballah Key Leaders Talal Hamiyah and Fu'ad Shukr,” U.S. Department of State, October 10, 2017, https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/10/274722.htm.

Hamiyah is suspected of involvement in the 1994 Hezbollah attacks in Argentina. Yaakov Lappin, “Hezbollah terror attack on Israelis abroad ‘is imminent,’” Jerusalem Post, April 21, 2011, http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Hezbollah-terror-attack-on-Israelis-abroad-is-imminent. Security officials recorded Hamiyah praising “our project in Argentina” in a conversation with his predecessor, Imad Mugniyah. Ronen Bergman, “Bracing for Revenge,” New York Times, February 18, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/18/opinion/18bergman.html. Hamiyah replaced Mughniyeh after the latter was killed in 2008. Yaakov Lappin, “Hezbollah terror attack on Israelis abroad ‘is imminent,’” Jerusalem Post, April 21, 2011, http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Hezbollah-terror-attack-on-Israelis-abroad-is-imminent.

There have not been any attacks specifically attributed to the ESO since 1994. “Hizballah’s External Security Organisation,” Australian National Security, accessed February 23, 2015, http://www.nationalsecurity.gov.au/Listedterroristorganisations/Pages/HizballahsExternalSecurityOrganisationESO.aspx. Israeli intelligence officials believe Hamiyah is recruiting Hezbollah cells around the world, primarily in South America, Western Europe, and Africa. Yossi Melman, “Every night in a different hotel or hideout,” Haaretz, August 1, 2006, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/every-night-in-a-different-hotel-or-hideout-1.194185. Sympathetic Shiite communities offer Hamiyah opportunities for recruitment and fundraising. Yossi Melman, “Every night in a different hotel or hideout,” Haaretz, August 1, 2006, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/every-night-in-a-different-hotel-or-hideout-1.194185. Israeli intelligence has accused Hamiyah of coordinating with Moqtada Sadir’s Mahdi Army and other Shiite militias in Iraq following the U.S. invasion. Yossi Melman, “Every night in a different hotel or hideout,” Haaretz, August 1, 2006, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/every-night-in-a-different-hotel-or-hideout-1.194185. Hamiyah’s cells reportedly rely on Iranian embassies to help transfer weapons. Yossi Melman, “Every night in a different hotel or hideout,” Haaretz, August 1, 2006, http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/every-night-in-a-different-hotel-or-hideout-1.194185.

Hamiyah reportedly answers directly to Hezbollah Secretary General Hassan Nasrallah and Iran’s al-Quds Force commander Qasem Soleimani. Yaakov Lappin, “Hezbollah terror attack on Israelis abroad ‘is imminent,’” Jerusalem Post, April 21, 2011, http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Hezbollah-terror-attack-on-Israelis-abroad-is-imminent.

On October 10, 2017, the U.S. State Department’s Rewards for Justice program offered a reward of up to $7 million for information on Hamiyah and a $7 million reward for Hezbollah operative Fu’ad Shukr.“Rewards for Justice - Reward Offer for Information on Hizballah Key Leaders Talal Hamiyah and Fu'ad Shukr,” U.S. Department of State, October 10, 2017, https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/10/274722.htm. A senior Hezbollah official told Reuters that the group rejects U.S. accusations against Hamiyah and Shukr, which “will not affect the work of the resistance at all.”“Hezbollah dismisses U.S. rewards for arrest of its operatives,” Reuters, October 11, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-lebanon-hezbollah/hezbollah-dismisses-u-s-rewards-for-arrest-of-its-operatives-idUSKBN1CG2IX.