John Georgelas is an American convert to Islam who traveled to Syria to fight for ISIS in 2013 and became “the most important and prominent American” in the group, according to Graeme Wood, writing for the Atlantic.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/; Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS: An Update,” Atlantic, December 16, 2016, https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/12/american-leader-islamic-state-update/510998/. Before joining ISIS, he amassed a following from his extensive scholarly writings on jihadist subjects, which he published online. Reportedly close to members of ISIS’s leadership, including former ISIS spokesperson Abu Muhammad al-Adnani, Georgelas allegedly pushed ISIS to declare a caliphate in 2014. Since then, he has become ISIS’s “leading producer of high-end English-language propaganda,” according to the Atlantic, appearing on the group’s Al Bayan radio station and contributing to its English-language magazines, Dabiq and Rumiyah.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.

Georgelas was born in December 1983 to an upper-middle-class family in Plano, Texas, although his family moved several times during his childhood because of his father’s military assignments. At eleven years old, he reportedly became interested in religion and joined the Greek Orthodox Church. According to his family, he was a troublemaker in school and drug user. His academic performance was poor, although he graduated from high school and briefly attended community college.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.

In November 2001, Georgelas converted to Islam and adopted the name Yahya. One month later, he traveled to Damascus, Syria, to study Arabic. While there, he met some British Muslims who introduced him to jihadism.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/. In March 2003, Georgelas flew to London to meet a Muslim woman named Tania Choudhury with whom he had been communicating online.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/; Barbara Davies, “Has the British beauty who fled her ISIS leader husband for Texas REALLY cut all ties with one of the world's most wanted terrorists?” Daily Mail (London), January 13, 2017, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4118570/Has-British-beauty-fled-ISIS-leader-husband-Texas-REALLY-cut-ties-one-world-s-wanted-terrorists.html. They married days later and settled together in College Station, Texas. The couple also spent time living in Syria, London, and California, throughout the following year. During this time, Georgelas became obsessed with studying and writing about Islamic history, theology, and jihad.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.

Georgelas and his wife moved from California back to Texas, where he began working as a data technician at Rackspace. In his spare time, he reportedly frequented jihadist forums online. Around 2006, he reportedly intended to travel to Iraq to wage jihad against American forces, but these plans were thwarted after he attempted to hack the website of the American Israel Public Affairs Committee—a client of Rackspace—on April 8, 2006.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.  The FBI arrested Georgelas on April 14 for intentionally accessing a protected computer without authorization. He pled guilty and was sentenced to 34 months in prison in August.“Former Data Technician at Local Internet Hosting Company and Self-Admitted Supporter of Pro-Jihad Website Sentenced to 34 Months for Attempting to Cause Damage to a Protected Computer,” U.S. Department of Justice, August 15, 2006, https://www.justice.gov/archive/usao/txn/PressRel06/georgelas_john_sen_pr.html; Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.

Following his release from prison, Georgelas remained under parole until October 2011 and worked as an IT specialist. After his parole expired, he moved to Cairo, Egypt, with his wife and children, where he made a living translating the fatwas of Qatari religious scholars. Georgelas began to amass a global following of extremists who admired his scholarly work, which he promoted online. He operated a website focused on Dhahirism––a semi-obscure literalist form of Islam––where he regularly published his own and others’ extremist rhetoric and held online seminars. According to an acquaintance, he was one of the strongest “pre-ISIS pro-caliphate voices.”Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.

In August 2013, Georgelas moved his wife and children to Azaz, Syria, in the midst of the country’s civil war. After a month, his family left Georgelas permanently to return to the United States. Following their departure, Georgelas trained with an ISIS-affiliated group near Aleppo, then participated in combat. However, he was severely injured by a mortar blast in April 2014, which left him unable to walk for some time. While recovering, Georgelas continued to update his website and became active on social media, where he posted pro-ISIS content. Georgelas was reportedly close with members of ISIS’s leadership, including former spokesperson and second-highest ranking ISIS leader Abu Muhammad al-Adnani. Georgelas reportedly pressed Adnani to pressure ISIS emir Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi to declare a caliphate. Once ISIS publicly declared its caliphate in June 2014, Georgelas pledged his allegiance to Baghdadi.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.

Georgelas was taken prisoner by the Free Syrian Army, but was eventually released after he reportedly feigned cooperation. In 2015, he traveled to ISIS’s de facto capital of Raqqa, where he was accepted as a scholar and spokesman for the group. Georgelas was first heard on ISIS’s Al Bayan radio station in December 2015, and in April 2016, wrote an article titled “Kill the Imams of Kufr [Disbelief] in the West” for ISIS’s English-language propaganda magazine, Dabiq.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.  Georgelas has since written extensively for both Dabiq and its successor, Rumiyah.

In December 2016, four months after Adnani was killed in a drone strike, ISIS named its new spokesperson as “Abu al-Hassan al-Mujahir”––a name similar to a known alias of Georgelas’s, Abu Hassan al-Mujahir. Although the Atlantic speculated that Georgelas might be the new spokesperson, there has been no further evidence to suggest this possibility. Nonetheless, the Atlantic asserts that Georgelas remains the “most important and prominent American” in ISIS.Graeme Wood, “The American Climbing the Ranks of ISIS,” Atlantic, updated January 25, 2017, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2017/03/the-american-leader-in-the-islamic-state/510872/.

Bilal Philips—born Dennis Bradley Philips in Jamaica—is a Canadian citizen and extremist preacher residing in Qatar.Dylan Robertson, “Canadian imam Bilal Philips unwelcome in Philippines,” Ottawa Citizen, September 10, 2014, http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-imam-bilal-philips-unwelcome-in-philippines;
“Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips (Dennis Bradley Philips),” Hampshire College, May 2015, “http://sites.hampshire.edu/scienceandislamvideoportal/speaker/abu-ameenah-bilal-philips-dennis-bradley-philips/. Philips has been named by the United States as an unindicted co-conspirator in the 1993 World Trade Center bombings but has never been charged.Andrew Gillian, “Why does the BBC air Islamist propaganda?” The Spectator (London), March 10, 2017, https://www.spectator.co.uk/2010/03/why-does-the-bbc-air-islamist-propaganda/#;
Dylan Robertson, “Canadian imam Bilal Philips unwelcome in Philippines,” Ottawa Citizen, September 10, 2014, http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-imam-bilal-philips-unwelcome-in-philippines. Philips has been banned or deported from numerous countries for his extremist views, including Australia, Bangladesh, Denmark, Kenya, Germany, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and the United States.Gabriel Borrud, “Germany expels openly homophobic imam,” Deutsche Welle, April 24, 2011, http://www.dw.com/en/germany-expels-openly-homophobic-imam/a-6510494-1;
“The National Sanctions List – Religious Workers with Entry Ban,” Nyidanmark.dk, https://www.nyidanmark.dk/da-dk/Ophold/religioese-forkyndere/den_nationale-sanktionsliste/religiose_forkyndere_med_indrejseforbud.htm;
“Islamic teacher  linked to terror groups arrested,” Manila Times, September 9, 2014, http://www.manilatimes.net/islamic-teacher-linked-terror-groups-arrested/125511/.

Philips was named as an unindicted co-conspirator in the foiled 1993 plot to bomb the Holland and Lincoln tunnels that span New York and New Jersey, two of the six targets that were part of the New York City landmark bomb plot, a follow-up operation to the World Trade Center attack.“A Conversation About Jihad With Controversial Preacher Bilal Philips,” IntelWire, March 19, 2011. According to Clement Rodney Hampton-El (a.k.a. Abdullah Rashid)—one of the men convicted of the World Trade Center bombings—Philips gave him the name of soldiers who were about to leave the U.S. military and who might be receptive to aiding jihadists in Bosnia.J. M. Berger, Jihad Joe, (Potomac Books, Inc.: Washington, D.C.), 2011; “Time to stop all the anti-Western hatred,” News.com.Au, March 17, 2009. http://www.news.com.au/opinion/time-to-stop-all-the-anti-western-hatred/news-story/8b452e6525e029888a14e79251eea3f7. Philips had also agreed to provide Hampton-El with funding to recruit non-American Muslims and send them to Bosnia. However, some of the recruits decided to attack the United States rather than travel to Bosnia, which led to the failed plot to bomb the Holland and Lincoln tunnels.“Controversial Muslim preacher to speak in Toronto,” National Post (Toronto), June 2, 2011. http://nationalpost.com/news/canada/controversial-muslim-preacher-to-speak-in-toronto/wcm/fae6066a-31a8-4b47-b0f6-c44d9e1bc4de.

Philips is a committed purveyor of homophobic ideas, describing gay sex as “evil,” “dangerous,” “deviant behavior,” responsible for the break-up of the nuclear family unit, and deserving of the death penalty.Stewart Bell, “Controversial Canadian Muslim preacher accused of inciting terrorism and arrested in Philippines,” National Post (Toronto), September 10, 2014, http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canadian-muslim-preacher-accused-of-inciting-terrorism-arrested-in-philippines;
Bilal Philips, “Homosexuality – Contemporary Issues – Bilal Philips,” Digital Minibar, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AerCqUUxiUo. AIDS, according to Philips, is divinely ordained retribution visited upon gay people for their “deviation.”Bilal Philips, “Homosexuality – Contemporary Issues – Bilal Philips,” Digital Minibar, YouTube, December 14, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AerCqUUxiUo. In this vein, Philips has also lodged objections at the fashion industry, “which is mostly controlled by homosexuals,” and has “promoted the blurring of lines between males and females…”Bilal Philips, “Homosexuality – Contemporary Issues – Bilal Philips,” Digital Minibar, YouTube, December 14, 2006, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AerCqUUxiUo.

In the United Kingdom, Philips is specifically banned for condoning suicide bombing, claiming “when you look at the mind of the suicide bomber, it’s a different intention altogether, the enemy is either too heavily armed, or they don’t have the type of equipment that can deal with it.”“Islamic teacher linked to terror groups arrested,” Manila Times, September 9, 2014, http://www.manilatimes.net/islamic-teacher-linked-terror-groups-arrested/125511/. Philips regularly airs his views on networks such as Peace TV, a 24-hour Islamic satellite TV channel run by extremist preacher Zakir Naik, and through his social media channels on Facebook,DrBilalPhilips, Facebook profile, accessed June 20, 2017, https://www.facebook.com/DrBilalPhilips/. YouTube,AabPhilips, YouTube profile, accessed June 20, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/user/aabphilips. and Twitter,DrBilalPhilips, Twitter profile, accessed June 20, 2017, https://twitter.com/DrBilalPhilips?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Eauthor. the last of which has over 400,000 followers.“Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips (Dennis Bradley Philips),” Hampshire College, “http://sites.hampshire.edu/scienceandislamvideoportal/speaker/abu-ameenah-bilal-philips-dennis-bradley-philips/. All of his social media accounts are officially “verified” by the social media companies. Philips himself denies that he is an extremist, claiming his statements are misquoted and that his mistreatment at the hands of immigration officials is more akin to the incarceration of Nelson Mandela.Dylan Robertson, “Canadian imam Bilal Philips unwelcome in Philippines,” Ottawa Citizen, September 10, 2014, http://ottawacitizen.com/news/national/canadian-imam-bilal-philips-unwelcome-in-philippines;
Tu Thanh Ha, “Controversial imam Bilal Philips says banning him won’t stop his message,” Globe and Mail (Toronto), September 15, 2014, https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/controversial-imam-bilal-philips-says-banning-him-wont-stop-his-message/article20611079/.

Philips was born in Kingston, Jamaica, but moved to Toronto, Canada with his family the age of 11. As a young man, Philips was interested with Communism and black nationalism before he became interested in Islam.Bilal Philips, “Dr. Abu Ameena Bilal Phillips (sic),” Way to Allah, accessed June 20, 2017, http://www.way-to-allah.com/en/journey/philips.html. He converted in 1972, after reading an influential book by Muhammad Qutb, younger brother of Sayyid Qutb, called Islam, the Misunderstood Religion. At this point he took on the name “Bilal.” In 1979, Philips moved to Medina, Saudi Arabia, where he studied Islam. He later attained a Master’s degree in Islamic Theology in Riyadh.J. M. Berger, Jihad Joe (Potomac Books, Inc.: Washington, D.C.), 2011.

Since converting to Islam, Philips has propagated an extremist interpretation of the religion. He has established numerous educational institutes and universities in several countries including the United Arab Emirates, India, Qatar, and Sudan. He is also the founder of the Islamic University Online, a website whose courses are marketed on Philips’ social media accounts.Bilal Philips, “Dr. Abu Ameena Bilal Phillips (sic),” Way to Allah, accessed June 20, 2017, http://www.way-to-allah.com/en/journey/philips.html. By his own account, Philips was instrumental in a mass conversion of American troops to Islam during the Gulf War while stationed in Saudi Arabia during 1992. As a member of the Royal Saudi Air Force’s religious unit, which had persuaded American officers to allow seminars introducing troops to Arab culture, Philips claims to have converted 3,000 U.S. soldiers, averaging 20 per day.Bilal Philips, “Dr. Abu Ameena Bilal Phillips (sic),” Way to Allah, accessed June 20, 2017, http://www.way-to-allah.com/en/journey/philips.html;
“Hizb ut Tahrir is not a gateway to terrorism, claims Whitehall report,” The Telegraph, July 25, 2010. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/journalists/andrew-gilligan/7908262/Hizb-ut-Tahrir-is-not-a-gateway-to-terrorism-claims-Whitehall-report.html.

Tarik Chadlioui, a.k.a. Tarik Ibn Ali, is a Moroccan-born Islamist preacher who reportedly played a role in radicalizing Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai through sermons at a Paris mosque. Chadlioui is further accused of fundraising for Syrian extremists and of being the spiritual leader of the now-defunct Islamist group Sharia4Belgium, which has ties to the defunct group Sharia4UK, once led by jailed propagandist Anjem Choudary.Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html. Though reportedly based in the United Kingdom since 2015, Spanish authorities accuse Chadlioui of being the spiritual leader of a jihadist group in Spain. Spain accuses Chadlioui of using his social media channels to recruit for ISIS. On June 28, 2017, British authorities arrested Chadlioui in Birmingham as part of a continent-wide operation against ISIS supporters.Ben Farmer and James Badcock, “Birmingham counter-terror arrest: Alleged ‘spiritual leader’ of Majorca-based cell is held,” Telegraph (London), June 28, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/28/birmingham-counter-terror-arrest-alleged-spiritual-leader-majorca/. Based on these offenses in Majorca in 2014 and 2015, the Westminster Magistrates’ Court ruled on October 3, 2017 that Chadlioui be extradited to Spain.“Central Magistrates Court Number 1 of the Spanish Criminal Court V. Tark Chadlioui,” Westminster Magistrates’ Court, October 3, 2017, https://www.judiciary.uk/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/chadlioui-v-spain-20171003.pdf. It is reported that on February 2018, Chadlioui was taken into custody in SpainFelipe Armendáriz, “Imam Tarik, terrorist or de-radicalizer?,” Diario de Mallorca, January 12, 2019, https://www.diariodemallorca.es/mallorca/2019/01/13/iman-tarik--terrorista-o/1382453.html. and as of January 09, 2019 he is on provisional release after paying 60,000 euros in bail.“En libertad bajo fianza de 60.000 euros un yihadista relacionado con una ‘matanza’ planeada en Inca,” Europa Press, January 08, 2019, https://www.europapress.es/nacional/noticia-libertad-fianza-60000-euros-yihadista-relacionado-matanza-planeada-inca-mallorca-20190108213442.html.

Chadlioui maintains an active presence on social media. He has more than 29,000 followers on Facebook.Tarik Chadlioui, Facebook page, accessed June 19, 2017, https://www.facebook.com/tarik.ibnali. Since Chadlioui joined YouTube in 2007, he has amassed more than 16,000 subscribers and his videos have received more than 13 million views.Tarik Ibn Ali, YouTube page, accessed June 19, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/user/TarikIbnAli. YouTube videos of Chadlioui show him extolling jihad as a path to forgiveness for other sins.Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html;
Abd Mus, “Ô toi qui délaisse ou retarde la prière ! [2/8],” YouTube video, uploaded April 11, 2010, 9:22, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7wlhqnVtPA.

Tarik Chadlioui’s videos have received more than 13 million views on YouTube. (Source: YouTube)

Chadlioui was previously based in Belgium, but reportedly moved to Egypt in 2010 after the Belgian government outlawed Islamic face veils in public.Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html; “Belgian ban on full veils comes into force,” BBC News, July 23, 2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-14261921. In 2015, he reportedly moved to the United Kingdom.Alexander Robertson, “Terror suspect arrested in Birmingham and facing extradition to Spain is imam father-of-eight who preached to Bataclan bomber before Paris attacks,” Daily Mail (London), updated June 29, 2017, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4646058/Police-arrest-ISIS-supporter-Birmingham.html.< Chadlioui purportedly traveled regularly to Europe to lecture at mosques and Islamic events. He spoke several times at the Luce mosque in the Paris suburb of Courcouronnes. Bataclan suicide bomber Ismaël Omar Mostefai reportedly attended the mosque.Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html. Mostefai was one of three gunmen who attacked Paris’s Bataclan theater in a series of coordinated attacks on November 13, 2015, that killed 130 people and wounded more than 300 others.Michael Safi, “Paris attacks: severed finger found at Bataclan theatre identifies attacker,” Guardian (London), November 15, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/15/paris-attacks-severed-finger-found-at-bataclan-theatre-identifies-attacker;
Paul Cruickshank, “The inside story of the Paris and Brussels attacks,” CNN, March 30, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/03/30/europe/inside-paris-brussels-terror-attacks/index.html.

Chadlioui was previously based in Belgium, but reportedly moved to Egypt in 2010 after the Belgian government outlawed Islamic face veils in public.Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html;
“Belgian ban on full veils comes into force,” BBC News, July 23, 2011, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-14261921. Chadlioui now reportedly travels regularly to Europe to lecture at mosques and Islamic events. Chadlioui spoke several times at the Luce mosque in the Paris suburb of Courcouronnes. Bataclan suicide bomber Ismaël Omar Mostefai reportedly attended the mosque.Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html. Mostefai was one of three gunmen who attacked Paris’s Bataclan theater in a series of coordinated attacks on November 13, 2015, that killed 130 people and wounded more than 300 others.Michael Safi, “Paris attacks: severed finger found at Bataclan theatre identifies attacker,” Guardian (London), November 15, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/15/paris-attacks-severed-finger-found-at-bataclan-theatre-identifies-attacker;
Paul Cruickshank, “The inside story of the Paris and Brussels attacks,” CNN, March 30, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2016/03/30/europe/inside-paris-brussels-terror-attacks/index.html.

In September 2014, Dutch lawmakers called for Chadlioui to be banned from entering the country ahead of a scheduled talk in the Dutch city of Gouda,“Radical Imam Should be Banned From Gouda: Politicians,” NL Times, September 18, 2014, http://nltimes.nl/2014/09/18/radical-imam-banned-gouda-politicians/. though Chadlioui’s talk reportedly went on as scheduled. The Dutch government nonetheless reportedly revoked Chadlioui’s visa ahead of a March 2015 fundraiser in Rijswijk that Dutch media labeled a “jihad gala.”Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html;
“MPs, officials want answers on Rijswijk ‘jihad gala,’” NL Times, February 16, 2015, http://www.dutchnews.nl/news/archives/2015/02/mps-officials-want-answers-on-rijswijk-jihad-gala/.

Chadlioui is linked to at least three European Islamist groups. He was reportedly the spiritual leader of Sharia4Belgium, a now-defunct Belgium-based group whose members traveled to Syria en masse in 2014.Matthew Dalton and Margaret Coker, “How Belgium Became a Jihadist-Recruiting Hub,” Wall Street Journal, September 28, 2014, http://www.wsj.com/articles/how-belgium-became-a-jihadist-recruiting-hub-1411958283. Sharia4Belgium’s leader, Foud Belkacem, was sentenced to 12 years in prison in February 2015.Andrew Higgins, “Head of Belgian Group Said to Recruit Fighters for Syria Gets 12-Year Term,” New York Times, February 11, 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/12/world/europe/fouad-belkacem-sharia4belgium-verdict-trial-belgium.html?_r=0. Germany banned the Islamist group Millatu Ibrahim in 2012 for promoting violence in its “fight against existing constitutional order,” according to the government.“Salafist Organization Banned in Germany,” Spiegel Online, June 14, 2012, http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/germany-bans-salafist-organization-and-stages-police-raids-a-838832.html. Nonetheless, Chadlioui reportedly raised €91,000 for the group during a 2013 speech at a German mosque.Jay Akbar and Neil Doyle, “Preacher of terror: Revealed, the hate filled Belgian Muslim cleric who 'radicalised' Bataclan suicide bomber Omar Mostefai,” Daily Mail (London), November 17, 2015, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3320770/Preacher-terror-Revealed-hate-filled-Belgian-Muslim-cleric-radicalised-Bataclan-suicide-bomber-Omar-Mostefai.html. The YouTube page of German Islamist group DawaFFM hosts several videos of Chadlioui addressing the group.DawaFFMTeam, YouTube page, accessed June 19, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/user/DAWAFFMTEAM/videos. The German government banned the group in March 2013, citing its incitement of violent Islamist radicals.Associated Press, “Germany: Islamist Group Banned,” New York Times, June 15, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/15/world/europe/germany-islamist-group-millatu-ibrahim-banned.html;
Associated Press, “Germany bans two ultraconservative Islamic groups,” Yahoo News, March 13, 2013, https://www.yahoo.com/news/germany-bans-2-ultraconservative-islamic-groups-131207241.html?ref=gs.

As part of a Europe-wide counter-ISIS operation, British authorities arrested Chadlioui in Birmingham on June 28, 2017, for allegedly recruiting for the terror group through his social media videos.Alexander Robertson, “Terror suspect arrested in Birmingham and facing extradition to Spain is imam father-of-eight who preached to Bataclan bomber before Paris attacks,” Daily Mail (London), updated June 29, 2017, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4646058/Police-arrest-ISIS-supporter-Birmingham.html. At the same time, Spanish police said they arrested four of Chadlioui’s followers in Majorka, Spain, while another was arrested in Germany. Spanish authorities seek to extradite Chadlioui. Spanish police suspect Chadlioui of “exercising functions ranging from recruiting, indoctrination and radicalization” on behalf of ISIS and “becoming from that point on their spiritual leader.”Ben Farmer and James Badcock, “Birmingham counter-terror arrest: Alleged ‘spiritual leader’ of Majorca-based cell is held,” Telegraph (London), June 28, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/28/birmingham-counter-terror-arrest-alleged-spiritual-leader-majorca/. Chadlioui faces up to 20 years in prison if convicted.Ben Farmer and James Badcock, “Birmingham counter-terror arrest: Alleged ‘spiritual leader’ of Majorca-based cell is held,” Telegraph (London), June 28, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/28/birmingham-counter-terror-arrest-alleged-spiritual-leader-majorca/.

Mohammed Shamsuddin is a pro-ISIS extremist propagandist and former member of Anjem Choudary’s now-defunct al-Muhajiroun terrorist network. According to the 2016 British television documentary “The Jihadis Next Door,” Shamsuddin replaced Abu Rumaysah, the network’s former senior spokesman, who traveled to Syria in late 2014.The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. The documentary’s director, Jamie Roberts, identified Shamsuddin as the “most senior member” of the extremist network, which has included such figures as extremist propagandist Abu Haleema and June 2017 London Bridge attacker Khuram Shazad Butt.The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. Shamsuddin is also an associate of Omar Bakri Muhammad, the extremist preacher who initially created the al-Muhajiroun network and is incarcerated in Lebanon on terrorism-related charges.“London Bridge attacker was known member of extremist network,” Financial Times (London), June 5, 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/9e1cd794-4a0a-11e7-919a-1e14ce4af89b.

Shamsuddin has propagated incendiary, divisive, and extremist messaging both amongst members of his group and when speaking publicly. Speaking to a crowd of people in July 2015, Shamsuddin said, “My dear Muslim brothers, there’s a war taking place… the sharia [Islamic law] is coming to the UK. This black flag you see here, one day, is going to be on 10 Downing Street.”The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. He also said, “We’re going to arrest [former Prime Minister] David Cameron. We’re going to arrest [former parliamentarian] George Osborne. We’re going to arrest every single member of the Conservative Party and put him on trial for the crimes against Muslims.”The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016.

Despite advocating sharia in the United Kingdom and fiercely criticizing British foreign policy, the divorced father-of-five has a keen understanding of how to take advantage of the freedoms and benefits afforded to British citizens. In spite of Shamsuddin’s fiery rhetoric, he has managed to avoid imprisonment and has lived on state welfare benefits since he was 18 years old.Tom Kelly and Inderdeep Bains, “Bridge terrorist’s links to two extremist preachers: Jihadi was filmed at extremist events alongside cleric who hailed his support for ISIS,” Daily Mail (London), June 4, 2017, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-4571814/Bridge-terrorist-s-links-two-extremist-preachers.html#ixzz4kSNCFV6k. According to documentarian Jamie Roberts, who made “The Jihadis Next Door” for Britain’s Channel 4 in 2016, Shamsuddin was also very careful when asked about ISIS. As Shamsuddin says in the film: “You can get 10 years [in prison] just for saying something which is reckless or careless… even though you didn’t possibly mean it like that, you know what I mean? You could have possibly meant it innocently, but because that innocent word could land you in prison [for] ten years.”The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. At one point during the film, Roberts showed Shamsuddin and Haleema ISIS execution videos and the two laughed, with Haleema complimenting ISIS’s high-quality filming style.The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016.

At another point during the documentary, the group was stopped and searched by a British policeman who said he was alerted by the public that the men were carrying an ISIS flag. Shamsuddin loudly protested against the search, repeatedly asking “search for what?” and “what offense has he made?” and “why?” Shamsuddin also repeatedly yelled at the policeman: “you’re lying” and “you’re a liar.” At one point, Shamsuddin asked, “what section of the terrorism act… glorification? Instigation? Preparation? We’re not stupid. We know the law.”The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016.

When asked how many people Shamsuddin knows “who have gone [to join ISIS in Syria],” he replied, “I know a fair amount, yeah. I know a fair amount.” Shamsuddin has also mocked U.K. counterterrorism officials, calling the person who dropped charges against him, “the moron of counterterrorism command.”The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. In August 2015, when members of his extremist cell were required to appear at a court hearing, Shamsuddin spoke to the press. He said, “My message to the Muslim community in the UK is this: this is a war against Islam and Muslims. The dawa [proselytization] must continue, the struggle must continue, the call must continue, and one day Islam will be dominant and the black flag of Islam will be over Downing Street.”The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. That same month Shamsuddin was once again arrested and released during counter-terrorism raids.“Khuram Butt, Rachid Redouane, and Youssef Zaghba named: Everything we know about the London Bridge terrorists,” Telegraph (London), June 6, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/05/ringleader-london-bridge-terror-attack-named-khuram-butt/.

Shamsuddin’s radicalization process reportedly began while he was at university, where he served as head of Southampton Solent University’s Islamic Society before dropping out.“London terrorist Khuram Butt appeared in TV documentary The Jihadis Next Door and ‘tried to go to Syria,” Telegraph (London), June 5, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/05/london-terrorist-appeared-channel-4-jihadi-documentary-tried/; The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. It was there that Shamsuddin met Bakri Muhammad, whom Shamsuddin described as a “close figure in my life…he is the person that had the most effect on my life, no doubt about it, in terms of molding my views.”The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016. According to the Channel 4 documentary, Shamsuddin is divorced with five children and has suffered from chronic fatigue syndrome since he was 8 years old and lives on government benefits.The Jihadis Next Door. Directed by Jamie Roberts. United Kingdom: Channel 4, 2016.

Shamsuddin first gained media attention during the 2010 sentencing of Roshonara Choudhry, a London University student convicted of stabbing Stephen Timms, a member of parliament for East Ham. When the jury sentenced Choudhry to life in prison in November 2010, Shamsuddin and two fellow protestors berated one juror wearing a hijab, screaming, “Shame on you, sister.”Sue Reid, “Special Report: The ‘DIY Jihadists’ Paid for by us… Roshanara Choudhry supporters are living on benefits,” Daily Mail (London), November 5, 2010, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1326844/DIY-jihadists-Roshonara-Choudhry-supporters-living-benefits.html. After the judge expelled the trio from the courtroom, they continued their protest outside, waving banners asserting that “Islam will dominate the world” and calling for the murder of British soldiers and Timms.Sue Reid, “Special Report: The ‘DIY Jihadists’ Paid for by us… Roshanara Choudhry supporters are living on benefits,” Daily Mail (London), November 5, 2010, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1326844/DIY-jihadists-Roshonara-Choudhry-supporters-living-benefits.html.

In September 2014, Shamsuddin and other members of al-Muhajiroun were arrested in a counterterrorism raid. Although Shamsuddin was released without charge, his arrest alongside Choudary, Rumaysah, and Haleema spoke to his central role within the al-Muhajiroun network and Britain’s extremist Islamist milieu. Choudary himself initially recruited Shamsuddin into al-Muhajiroun.Ceylan Yeginsu, “One of U.K.’s Most Prolific Extremist Cells Is Regrouping,” New York Times, May 18, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/18/world/europe/uk-extremist-cell-anjem-choudary.html. Rumaysah, a.k.a. Siddartha Dhar, immigrated to Syria to join ISIS in later that month while out on bail, published a “travel guide” for aspiring foreign fighters, and was suspected of being the masked jihadist responsible for executing an alleged British spy in a January 2016 ISIS propaganda video.“Britain denounces Islamic State video showing ‘spies’ shot,” Reuters, January 4, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-video-idUSKBN0UI0QD20160104. He reportedly died in 2017.Tom Well, “‘JIHADI SID’ KILLED ‘Jihadi Sid’, the British former bouncy castle salesman turned ISIS fiend, is believed to have been killed in drone strike, officials say,” Sun (London), October 19, 2018, https://www.thesun.co.uk/news/7538880/jihadi-sid-killed-drone-strike/. Haleema is an alleged ISIS supporter who has used YouTube and social media as platforms to disseminate lectures and mobilize ISIS sympathizers in Australia and the United Kingdom.

Although Shamsuddin has not been charged for supporting the London Bridge attacks, his relationship with Khuram Butt and role in al-Muhajiroun are well-documented. Indeed, Shamsuddin functioned as a de-facto leader of the formally defunct al-Muhajiroun group following Omar Bakri’s detention in Lebanon and Choudary’s imprisonment for terrorism offenses in the United Kingdom.Sarah Knapton, Martin Evans, Nicola Harley, Harry Yorke, Pen Farmer, and Robert Mendick, “Khuram Butt, Rachid Redouane, and Youssef Zaghba named: Everything we know about the London Bridge terrorists,” Telegraph (London), June 6, 2017, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/05/ringleader-london-bridge-terror-attack-named-khuram-butt/. As a leading figure within the extremist network, Shamsuddin has implied support for the so-called Islamic State, called for a caliphate in the United Kingdom, and promised that Islam would dominate the world.Tom Kelly and Hugo Gye, “Sickening moment two henchmen of ISIS executioner ‘Jihadi Sid’ giggled as they watched beheading video while eating meal in London restaurant,” Daily Mail (London), January 19, 2016, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3406053/ISIS-militant-nicknamed-Jihadi-Sid-warned-black-flag-fly-Downing-Street.html.

The U.K. government banned al-Muhajiroun in 2006 over the group’s links to terrorism and later banned the group’s aliases.“Proscribed Terrorist Organizations,” U.K. Home Office, accessed July 31, 2019, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/538297/20160715-Proscription-website-update.pdf. British authorities released Choudary from prison on parole in October 2018, halfway through his sentence. Since then, British sources report that elements of al-Muhajiroun have sought to reorganize. Shamsuddin told the New York Times in May 2019 that the al-Muhajiroun members arrested in the 2000s are all now free or about to go free. He said that the police are now stretched too thin and the British government is too preoccupied with Brexit to focus on a regrouping al-Muhajiroun.Ceylan Yeginsu, “One of U.K.’s Most Prolific Extremist Cells Is Regrouping,” New York Times, May 18, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/18/world/europe/uk-extremist-cell-anjem-choudary.html.

Abdul Baset Egwilla is a Libyan-Canadian Islamist cleric linked to the Manchester bomber, Salman Abedi, who detonated a suicide bomb at an Ariana Grande concert killing 22 people, including an eight year old girl. In May 2017, a senior U.S. official stated that Egwilla had links to Abedi.Katrin Beinhold, Stephen Castle, and Susan Ali Zway, “Hunt for Manchester Bombing Accomplice Extends to Libya,” New York Times, May 24, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/24/world/europe/manchester-bomber-salman-abedi.html. Egwilla is thought to have played a part in radicalizing Abedi, whose father, Ramadan Abedi, regularly met with the preacher at Friday prayers in Tripoli. Egwilla has denied any link with either Ramadan or Salman Abedi.Lisa Laventure and Evan Dyer, “Libyan-Canadian cleric linked to Manchester bomber plans return to Canada to clear his name,” CBC News, June 5, 2017, http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/libyan-cleric-manchester-bomber-1.4143899.

Before living in Canada, Egwilla was a member of a Libyan militant group in Peshawar, Pakistan that was supported in part by Osama bin Laden. He moved to Canada and obtained citizenship there, serving as a cleric at a mosque in Ottawa. His son, Owais, also grew up in Ottawa but was killed in March 2016 in Benghazi while fighting for the Omar Mukhtar Brigade, an Islamist militia group.Lisa Laventure and Evan Dyer, “Libyan-Canadian cleric linked to Manchester bomber plans return to Canada to clear his name,” CBC News, June 5, 2017, http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/libyan-cleric-manchester-bomber-1.4143899. Owais had posted Facebook messages advocating violent jihad and in support of al-Qaeda propaganda.Stewart Bell, “Manchester bombing suspect Salman Abedi reportedly linked to former Ottawa extremist imam,” National Post (Toronto), May 25, 2017, http://news.nationalpost.com/news/canada/manchester-bombing-suspect-salman-abedi-reportedly-linked-to-former-ottawa-extremist-imam.

In 2007, Egwilla returned to Libya, and became a prominent supporter of the anti-Gaddafi Libya Dawn movement, affiliated with the Muslim Brotherhood. After the Gadaffi regime fell in 2011, he became the administrative director for mosques in Tripoli.Lisa Laventure and Evan Dyer, “Libyan-Canadian cleric  linked to Manchester bomber plans return to Canada to clear his name,” CBC News, June 5, 2017, http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/libyan-cleric-manchester-bomber-1.4143899. Canadian authorities then accused him of preaching violent jihad while in Libya. In 2014, Canada’s Integrated Terrorism Assessment Centre reported that Egwilla had been featured in a video calling on Libyan militants to participate in jihad. Egwilla has responded that he has never called for jihad outside of Libya, nor outside the context of Gaddafi.Katrin Beinhold, Stephen Castle, and Susan Ali Zway, “Hunt for Manchester Bombing Accomplice Extends to Libya,” New York Times, May 24, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/24/world/europe/manchester-bomber-salman-abedi.html.

Egwilla claims to have fled Libya in late 2016 after an attempted assassination by Madkhalis, Salafist followers of a radical Saudi cleric, Nadir al-Omrani. In a June 2017 interview with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, he said he intended return to Canada imminently from an undisclosed location to clear his name.Lisa Laventure and Evan Dyer, “Libyan-Canadian cleric linked to Manchester bomber plans return to Canada to clear his name,” CBC News, June 5, 2017,  http://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/libyan-cleric-manchester-bomber-1.4143899.

Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen and co-founder and leader of al-Qaeda, notorious for orchestrating the September 11, 2001, attacks that killed nearly 3,000 people. Throughout his three-decade-long jihadist career, bin Laden oversaw the planning of numerous largescale terrorist attacks, established a network of al-Qaeda-linked businesses and operatives, and united terrorist groups from the Middle East, Africa, Eastern Europe, and Asia. Between 1996 and 2001, he lived in Afghanistan under the protection of the ruling Taliban and its leader Mullah Mohammed Omar. Bin Laden was killed on May 2, 2011, in a shootout with U.S. Navy SEALS at a compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan. Bin Laden was succeeded as al-Qaeda's emir by Ayman al-Zawahiri.“TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html;
Peter Baker, Helene Cooper, Mark Mazzetti, “Bin Laden Is Dead, Obama Says,” New York Times, May 1, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0.

Born in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, in 1957, Osama bin Laden was the 17^th of 54 children fathered by Saudi billionaire Mohammed bin Laden. The elder bin Laden, an immigrant from Yemen, was the head of a successful construction firm—building many of the palaces and major roads in the kingdom as well as renovating Jerusalem’s Al Aqsa Mosque. Osama’s mother, Hamida al-Attas, came from a prominent Syrian Alawite family and was Mohammed bin Laden’s tenth wife. Osama’s parents divorced soon after he was born, and his father died in a plane crash when he was five years old. Nevertheless, Osama would later work for and inherit millions from his father’s business empire.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 75, 84; Victory D. Comras, Flawed Diplomacy: The United Nations & the War on Terrorism, (Washington D.C.: Potomac Books, Inc., 2010), 36.

In high school bin Laden joined the Saudi branch of the Muslim Brotherhood and read the extremist texts of influential Brotherhood ideologue Sayyid Qutb. Bin Laden’s friend at the time, Jamal Khalifa, later said that Qutb “was the one who most affected [his and bin Laden’s] generation.”Alastair Finlan, The Test of Terrorism: Responding to Political Violence in the Twenty-First Century, (London: Routledge: 2015); Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 90-92. In his books, Qutb called for an Islamic “vanguard” to take up jihad against secular governments and eventually resurrect the caliphate. Qutb also re-popularized the Islamic concept of takfir, which permits the labeling of fellow Muslims as apostates, thus justifying their persecution and murder.Alastair Finlan, The Test of Terrorism: Responding to Political Violence in the Twenty-First Century, (London: Routledge: 2015).

In 1974, bin Laden—then a deeply pious 18-year-old—married his 14-year-old Syrian cousin. Bin Laden would go on to marry two more women and father at least 23 children.“The life and death of Osama bin Laden,” Washington Post, May 2, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/special/world/timeline-life-of-osama-bin-laden/. Between 1976 and 1979, bin Laden studied economics at the King Abdul Aziz University in Jeddah. There, he formed a religious charity on campus, whose members “devoted a lot of time to interpreting the Quran and jihad,” according to bin Laden’s own account.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 90. It was also at that university that bin Laden met Abdullah Azzam, a renowned Palestinian scholar and a professor at the school. Azzam, often referred to as the father of modern jihad, would serve as a spiritual mentor to bin Laden and eventually become a co-founder of al-Qaeda.Aryn Baker, “Who Killed Abdullah Azzam?” Time, June 18, 2009, http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1902809_1902810_1905173-1,00.html;
Asaf Maliach, “Abdullah Azzam, Al-Qaeda, and Hamas,” Institute for National Security Studies, October 2010, Volume 2, No. 2, http://www.inss.org.il/uploadimages/Import/(FILE)1298359986.pdf.

Bin Laden reportedly traveled to the Afghanistan-Pakistan border within two weeks of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 55, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf;
Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 109. Bin Laden acted as a visiting envoy, meeting various militant leaders and devising ways to raise funds for the mujahideen (“holy warriors”). In the early-mid 1980s, he traveled back and forth to Saudi Arabia, where he implored wealthy family members to financially support the Afghan jihad. Bin Laden also brought construction machinery and Arab recruits into Afghanistan, and provided the fighters with logistical and humanitarian aid.Kate Zernike and Michael T. Kaufman, “The Most Wanted Face of Terrorism,” New York Times, May 2, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/02osama-bin-laden-obituary.html; “Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html. Bin Laden’s former professor, Abdullah Azzam, arrived in Peshawar in late 1981, and the two men worked closely to recruit, train, and equip Arab fighters for the jihad.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 111.

In September 1984, bin Laden and Azzam decided to create a formal role for Arabs and other foreign (including Western) fighters in Afghanistan. The pair soon established the Services Bureau (Makhtab al-Khadamat)—an office, printing center, funds repository, and hostel for foreign mujahideen. Bin Laden also began to offer plane tickets, residences, and living expenses for the men, and by 1986 was believed to be paying $25,000 per month to subsidize the fighters.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 117-119.

In 1987, bin Laden met Ayman al-Zawahiri for the first time, in Pakistan.“Timeline of al-Zawahiri,” CNN, June 16, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/16/timeline-of-al-zawahiri/. At the time, Zawahiri, an Egyptian doctor, was a key leader of Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ)—a jihadist group responsible for the 1981 assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat.“Timeline of al-Zawahiri,” CNN, June 16, 2011, http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/16/timeline-of-al-zawahiri/. Bin Laden and Zawahiri quickly developed a close working relationship, and co-founded al-Qaeda (“the base”) in August 1988 alongside several other Islamist operatives, including Azzam.“Egyptian Islamic Jihad,” Mapping Militant Organizations, last modified October 26, 2015, http://web.stanford.edu/group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/401;
“A history of terror: Al-Qaeda 1988-2008,” Guardian (London), July 12, 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/13/history.alqaida;
“Tareekhosama/50/Tareekh Osama 122-123,” Intelwire.com, February 24, 2009, http://intelfiles.egoplex.com/1988-08-11-al-qaeda-founding.pdf;
Arabina Acharya, Ten Years After 9/11: Rethinking the Jihadist Threat, (London and New York: Routledge, 2013) 36. The secretary at the meeting noted that “al-Qaeda is basically an organized Islamic faction, its goal is to lift the word of God, to make His religion victorious.”Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 152;
Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, (New York: Random House, 2002), 103;
“Origins of Al Qaeda,” Global Issues on Terrorism, accessed May 1, 2017, https://sites.stedwards.edu/craigc-culf331111fa2014/group-middle-east-and-north-africa/origins-of-al-qaeda/.

Within a year, however, disagreements arose between bin Laden and Azzam on al-Qaeda’s trajectory. While Azzam envisioned bringing the fight to Israel after Afghanistan, bin Laden preferred to prioritize targeting of the United States and Arab regimes such as the Saudi government.Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, The Age of Sacred Terror, (New York: Random House, 2002), 103;
“Origins of Al Qaeda,” Global Issues on Terrorism, accessed May 1, 2017, https://sites.stedwards.edu/craigc-culf331111fa2014/group-middle-east-and-north-africa/origins-of-al-qaeda/. The disagreement ended when Azzam was killed in Peshawar on November 24, 1989.Aryn Baker, “Who Killed Abdullah Azzam?,” Time, June 18, 2009, http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1902809_1902810_1905173-1,00.html. Zawahiri continued to direct EIJ until it finally merged with al-Qaeda in 2001.“Country Reports on Terrorism 2008,” U.S. Department of State, April 2009, 305, https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/122599.pdf.

After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia emboldened by the perceived triumph of the mujahideen over the Soviets. While working at his father’s construction firm in Saudi Arabia, bin Laden was approached about moving his nascent al-Qaeda to Sudan by Hassan al-Turabi—the then-secretary general of the Sudanese Muslim Brotherhood.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 57, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf;
“Timeline: Al Qaeda’s Global Context,” PBS Frontline, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/knew/etc/cron.html;
Lawrence Joffe, “Hassan al-Turabi obituary,” Guardian (London), March 11, 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/11/hassan-al-turabi-obituary. Turabi proposed allowing bin Laden use Sudan as al-Qaeda’s base in exchange for the building of roads and support in the ongoing war against Christian separatists in Southern Sudan.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 57, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf. Bin Laden would not relocate to Sudan until late 1991.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html.

In August 1990, as U.S. forces arrived in Saudi Arabia to prepare for the first Gulf War, bin Laden urged Saudi King Fahd to expel the Americans and instead allow the veterans of the Afghan war to defend the Arabian Peninsula. King Fahd declined bin Laden’s offer in favor of U.S. and allied forces.Andrew Wander, “A History of Terror: Al-Qaeda 1988-2008,” Guardian (London), July 12, 2008, http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/13/history.alqaida. Enraged, bin Laden began to publicly rebuke the monarchy for its alliance with the United States, prompting Saudi Arabia to expel him in April 1991. Bin Laden fled to Afghanistan, and then accepted Sudanese leader Hassan al-Turabi’s offer—arriving in Sudan by 1992.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html. There, he established legitimate businesses and began to build out the al-Qaeda network.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html.

The first attack orchestrated by bin Laden and his associates occurred on December 19, 1992, when a bomb exploded in a hotel room in Aden, Yemen, killing two Australian tourists. Bin Laden had intended for the explosion to kill a unit of U.S. soldiers, but those troops had already left the premises.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html. Attacks perpetrated by al-Qaeda operatives and like-minded jihadist increased in the following years. On February 26, 1993, Ramzi Yousef—a Pakistani terrorist not directly linked to al-Qaeda—carried out the Word Trade Center bombing, killing six people and injuring over 1,000 others. While bin Laden praised Yousef’s bombing, he is not believed to have played a role in the attack.Robert Windrem, “Al-Qaida timeline: Plots and attacks,” MSNBC Research and NBC News, http://www.nbcnews.com/id/4677978/ns/world_news-hunt_for_al_qaida/t/al-qaida-timeline-plots-attacks/#.WN61y28rKpo.

In April 1994, the Saudi government revoked bin Laden’s citizenship and froze his assets. Undeterred, bin Laden continued to grow his operations, establishing training camps for foreign fighters in Yemen near the Saudi border, according to U.S. intelligence sources.“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html;
“TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court, Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html. Meanwhile, the United States and Saudi Arabia began to pressure Sudan to expel bin Laden, citing his danger to the international community. In May 1996, Turabi reportedly gave bin Laden the choice to stay in Sudan and keep his operations quiet, or to leave the country altogether. Bin Laden opted to relocate his growing jihadist movement, and moved to Afghanistan shortly thereafter.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 252-253; “TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court, Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html;
“Osama Bin Laden: A Chronology of His Political Life,” PBS Frontline, accessed March 15, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/etc/cron.html.

The Taliban controlled much of Afghanistan by the time bin Laden arrived. The group’s leader, Mullah Omar, allowed bin Laden to settle his family and operatives in the eastern city of Jalalabad. Bin Laden would later pledge allegiance to Mullah Omar in late August or early September 1998, forming a bond between the groups that persists to this day.Lawrence Wright, The Looming Tower, (New York: Random House, 2011), 254-255, 326.

Bin Laden issued his first fatwa soon after arriving in Afghanistan. The statement, titled “Declaration of War Against the Americans Who Occupy the Land of the Two Holy Mosques,” was published by London’s Al Quds al Arabi newspaper on August 23, 1996. In it, bin Laden called on Muslims to force the U.S. military out of the Arabian Peninsula; dethrone the Saudi government; punish the U.S. and its allies for their “Crusade” against Islam; and liberate Muslim holy sites.“Bin Laden’s Fatwa,” PBS Newshour, August 23, 1996, http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/military-july-dec96-fatwa_1996/;
“Osama bin Laden v. the U.S.: Edits and Statements,” PBS Frontline, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/binladen/who/edicts.html;
“Timeline: Osama bin Laden, over the years,” CNN, May 2, 2011, http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/05/02/osama.timeline/. Soon after the fatwa’s publication, bin Laden was visited by Khalid Sheikh Mohammed (KSM)—the uncle of World Trade Center bomber Ramzi Yousef. KSM appealed to bin Laden for funds and material to carry out a largescale attack in the United States. Bin Laden agreed to front the funds and asked KSM to join al-Qaeda, though KSM politely declined, deciding to operate independently.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 147, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf.

Bin Laden would continue to issue fatwas and orchestrate largescale attacks against U.S. targets. In February 1998, he released his second fatwa—“Declaration of the World Islamic Front for Jihad against the Jews and the Crusaders”—in which he declared it a duty for Muslims to carry out jihad against Islam’s enemies and to expel Americans from the Gulf region.“Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders,” Federation of American Scientists, February 23, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm. That August, al-Qaeda carried out its then-largest attack when operatives targeted the U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The explosions in Nairobi killed 213 people—nearly all Kenyans and 12 Americans—and injured approximately 5,000 others. In Dar es Salaam, the bombs killed 11 people, none of them Americans.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 70, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf. Three months later, in November 1998, bin Laden was indicted by a U.S. Federal Grand Jury in New York for engaging in a long-term conspiracy to attack U.S. facilities overseas and to kill American citizens.“TEXT: US GRAND JURY INDICTMENT AGAINST USAMA BIN LADEN,” United States District Court, Southern District of New York, November 6, 1998, https://fas.org/irp/news/1998/11/98110602_nlt.html;
Bill Mears, “Bin Laden charges formally dropped,” CNN, June 17, 2011, http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/06/17/bin.laden.charges/. At around the same time he was indicted in New York, bin Laden met with KSM in Pakistan and officially approved his plot to weaponize airplanes and crash them into buildings in the United States. The 9/11 plot had begun to take form.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 149; 167, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf.

In November 1999, bin Laden received four visitors—Mohamed Atta, Marwan al Shehhi, Ziad Jarrah, and Ramzi bin al-Shibh. The men were members of an al-Qaeda cell in Hamburg, Germany, and were eager to partake in a terrorist attack against the United States. After swearing fealty to bin Laden, the men were instructed to enroll in flight training schools in the West. Bin Laden selected Atta to lead the cell, and revealed to him al-Qaeda’s top targets in the United States: the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the U.S. Capitol. Atta, Shehhi, and Jarrah would become hijacker-pilots in the 9/11 attacks, whereas Shibh would serve as a key facilitator in the attacks.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): 166; 242, http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf. Shibh is currently held by the United States as an enemy combatant at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.“Ramzi Bin al Shibh: Guantanamo Docket,” New York Times, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/projects/guantanamo/detainees/10013-ramzi-bin-al-shibh.

On October 12, 2000, in al-Qaeda’s last largescale attack before 9/11, two al-Qaeda suicide bombers steered a small boat laden with 400 to 700 pounds of explosives into the port side of the USS Cole while it refueled in Aden, Yemen. The explosion killed 17 U.S. sailors.“USS Cole Bombing Fast Facts,” CNN, October 6, 2016, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/world/meast/uss-cole-bombing-fast-facts/. The attack was masterminded by al-Qaeda operative Abd Rahim al-Nashiri upon instructions from bin Laden to target U.S. warships in Yemen’s southern port of Aden.National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States, Thomas H. Kean, and Lee Hamilton. 2004. The 9/11 Commission report: final report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United States. (Washington, D.C.): [152], http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report.pdf.

On September 11, 2001, 19 al-Qaeda operatives hijacked U.S. commercial airliners and flew them into the World Trade Center in New York and the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. A fourth hijacked airplane crashed in a field in rural Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 civilians were killed and thousands more injured.“Timeline: Al-Qaeda,” BBC News, September 4, 2006, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3618762.stm. Within weeks, the U.S. launched military operations against al-Qaeda’s suspected safe havens in Afghanistan. That December, bin Laden is believed to have escaped U.S. bombing in Afghanistan’s Tora Bora Mountains and fled to Pakistan.Kate Zernike and Michael T. Kaufman, “The Most Wanted Face of Terrorism,” New York Times, May 2, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/02osama-bin-laden-obituary.html.

Bin Laden did not claim responsibility for the 9/11 attacks until October 2004, when he appeared in a video released by Al Jazeera.“Bin Laden: 'Your security is in your own hands,'” CNN, October 29, 2004, http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/10/29/bin.laden.transcript/. “We should destroy towers in America [because] we are a free people…and we want to regain the freedom of our nation,” bin Laden reasoned. The al-Qaeda leader further said that America might avoid another 9/11-style attack if it stopped compromising the “security” of Muslims, warning, “As you undermine our security we undermine yours.”“Bin Laden claims responsibility for 9/11,” CBC News, October 29, 2004, http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-9-11-1.513654;
“Bin Laden Claims Responsibility for 9/11,” Fox News, October 30, 2004, http://www.foxnews.com/story/2004/10/30/bin-laden-claims-responsibility-for-11.html.

Bin Laden is believed to have settled in a compound in Abbottabad during the 2000s, though there is little publically available information on his whereabouts during this time. In 2009, the U.S. government announced that the al-Qaeda leader was most likely living on the Afghanistan-Pakistan border, but conceded that it had a “lack of intelligence” regarding his exact location.“Osama bin Laden Fast Facts,” CNN, May 2, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/30/world/osama-bin-laden-fast-facts/. Living as an elusive fugitive, bin Laden was still able to release videos threatening the West and claim responsibility for al-Qaeda-linked attacks. In January 2010, bin Laden claimed responsibility for the failed bombing of a civilian airliner over Detroit, Michigan, on December 25, 2009. Perpetrated by “underwear bomber” Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab, the attack had been planned by al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) cleric Anwar al-Awlaki.Scott Shane and Eric Lipton, “Passengers’ Quick Action Halted Attack,” New York Times, December 26, 2009, http://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/27/us/27plane.html.

In the early morning of May 2, 2011, a small team of U.S. Navy SEALS entered the Abbottabad compound where bin Laden was living and killed the 54-year-old al-Qaeda leader in a shootout. His body was transported to the U.S. aircraft carrier the USS Carl Vinson and given an Islamic burial at sea within 24 hours.“Osama Bin Laden: What happened to his body?,” BBC News, May 2, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13261680. In a televised statement on the night of May 2, President Barack Obama referred to bin Laden as al-Qaeda’s “leader and symbol” and warned that bin Laden’s death did “not mark the end of our effort. There’s no doubt that al-Qaeda will continue to pursue attacks against us.”Peter Baker, Helene Cooper, Mark Mazzetti, “Bin Laden Is Dead, Obama Says,” New York Times, May 1, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/02/world/asia/osama-bin-laden-is-killed.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0;
“Osama bin Laden Fast Facts,” CNN, May 2, 2015, http://www.cnn.com/2013/08/30/world/osama-bin-laden-fast-facts/.

Bin Laden’s burial at sea took place within 24 hours of his death with proper religious rites, in accordance with Islamic law. Some Islamic scholars have argued there was no reason to give bin Laden a burial at sea instead of turning the body over to family or even his supporters for a proper burial. Dubai’s grand mufti Mohammed al-Qubaisi said at the time a sea burial was inappropriate and Islamic law required digging a simple grave if nobody was available to take custody of the body. U.S. officials, however, said there was not enough time to negotiate with other countries to take custody of the body. They further said the burial at sea took place to avoid bin Laden’s grave becoming a shrine.“Osama Bin Laden: What happened to his body?,” BBC News, May 2, 2011, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-13261680.

Ayman al-Zawahiri, previously al-Qaeda’s second-in-command, was elevated to leader of the international terror group six weeks after bin Laden’s death. Zawahiri vowed to continue waging jihad against “crusader America and its servant Israel, and whoever supports them.”“Al-Qaeda’s remaining leaders,” BBC news, June 16, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-11489337. Bin Laden’s son Hamza bin laden was a key al-Qaeda operative being groomed for a senior leadership role prior to his own death in a 2019 U.S. counterterrorism operation in the Afghanistan-Pakistan region.Dugald McConnell and Brian Todd, “Latest al Qaeda propaganda highlights bin Laden’s son,” CNN, May 15, 2017,  http://www.cnn.com/2017/05/15/middleeast/al-qaeda-bin-laden-son/index.html; Alex Horton, “Osama bin Laden’s son, once the probable heir to al-Qaeda leadership, killed in U.S. operation, Trump confirms,” Washington Post, September 14, 2019, https://beta.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2019/09/14/hamza-bin-laden-once-possible-heir-al-qaeda-was-killed-us-operation-trump-says/. Zawahiri reportedly died in November 2020 from asthma, but his death remains unconfirmed by al-Qaeda.Baker Atyani and Sayed Salahuddin, “Al-Qaeda chief Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan — sources,” Arab News, November 20, 2020, https://www.arabnews.pk/node/1765746/world; Tim Stickings, “Al-Qaeda's leader Ayman al-Zawahiri has died, reports claim terror chief Ayman al-Zawahiri has died in Afghanistan from ‘asthma-related breathing issues,’” Daily Mail (London), November 20, 2020, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-8970231/Al-Qaedas-leader-Ayman-al-Zawahiri-died-reports-claim.html.

Mustafa Kamel Mustafa (“Abu Hamza al-Masri” or “Abu Hamza”) is an Egyptian-British citizen and U.S.- and U.N.-sanctioned terrorist associated with al-Qaeda. He was convicted in the United States on multiple counts, including his role in a 1998 hostage-taking attack in Yemen, his support for terrorist operatives in Afghanistan, and for plotting to establish a U.S.-based al-Qaeda training camp. A longtime preacher at the Finsbury Park mosque in London, Abu Hamza was arrested in the United Kingdom in 2004 and extradited to the United States in 2012. He is currently serving two life sentences without parole at a maximum security prison in Colorado.“Mustafa Kamel Mustafa, A/k/a “Abu Hamza,” Convicted Of 11 Terrorism Charges In Manhattan Federal Court,” U.S. Department of Justice, May 19, 2014, https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/mustafa-kamel-mustafa-aka-abu-hamza-convicted-11-terrorism-charges-manhattan-federal;
Nicky Woolf, “Abu Hamza Sentenced to Life in Prison on US Terrorism Conviction,” Guardian (London), January 9, 2015, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/09/abu-hamza-sentenced-life-impisonment-terrorism-conviction.

Born in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1958, Abu Hamza began to show an interest in religion in the early 1980s while living on a student visa in England. There, he studied civil engineering at Brighton Polytechnic College and worked at a nightclub in London. While in England, Abu Hamza met, and ultimately married, a British woman who reportedly encouraged him to become more religiously observant.“Abu Hamza Profile,” BBC News, January 9, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11701269.

In 1987, Abu Hamza traveled to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, where he met with the spiritual leader of the Afghan Mujahideen movement, Abdullah Azzam.Duncan Gardham, “Nightclub Bouncer Who Became the Cleric of Hate,” Telegraph (London), February 8, 2006, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1509940/Nightclub-bouncer-who-became-the-cleric-of-hate.html. By his own account, the meeting with Azzam ultimately inspired Abu Hamza to leave England in 1991 and travel to Afghanistan, where he worked on a Saudi-funded project that built factories, schools, and mosques, and provided resources to refugees in the aftermath of the Soviet-Afghan War.Duncan Gardham, “Nightclub Bouncer Who Became the Cleric of Hate,” Telegraph (London), February 8, 2006, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1509940/Nightclub-bouncer-who-became-the-cleric-of-hate.html. While traveling to the region, Abu Hamza lost his eye and both of his hands, though the details of his injury are not consistent. At one point, Abu Hamza claimed to have sustained the injury while participating in a demining project in Jalalabad.“Controversial Cleric of UK Mosque,” CNN, April 1, 2003, http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/europe/01/20/uk.hamzaprofile/. At his U.S. trial, however, Abu Hamza said that he was wounded while handling explosives with the Pakistani military in Lahore.“Abu Hamza Profile,” BBC News, January 9, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11701269.

Abu Hamza returned to England for medical treatment in 1993. Two years later, however, he left England again, this time to fight against the Serbs and Croats in Bosnia. Upon returning to London in 1995, Abu Hamza quickly became a “leading figure” in the British Islamist scene, making a name for himself by preaching and handing out leaflets urging violent jihad in the Middle East. It was during this time that Abu Hamza took up the nickname “Abu Hamza al-Masri” (“Egyptian father of the lion hunter”), and helped to organize an Islamist extremist group, the Saviours of Shariah (Islamic law).Duncan Gardham, “Nightclub Bouncer Who Became the Cleric of Hate,” Telegraph (London), February 8, 2006, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1509940/Nightclub-bouncer-who-became-the-cleric-of-hate.html. In 1997, Abu Hamza began preaching at the Finsbury Park mosque in London, where he started to amass a following. In interviews in the 1990s, Hamza declared his support for the murder of non-Muslim tourists visiting countries in the Middle East. According to Abu Hamza’s own account, MI5 first contacted him around this time, after terrorists—reportedly linked to Egyptian terrorist group al-Gamaa al-Islamiya—killed 68 tourists in Luxor, Egypt, in November 1997.“Abu Hamza Profile,” BBC News, January 9, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11701269;
“Designation of 10 Terrorist Financiers Fact Sheet,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, April 19, 2002, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/po3014.aspx;
“1997: Egyptian Militants Kill Tourists at Luxor,” BBC News, accessed April 21, 2017, http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/17/newsid_2519000/2519581.stm.

In subsequent years, Abu Hamza gained control over the Finsbury Park mosque, delivering almost all of the sermons. According to reports, Abu Hamza’s supporters would often bar entry to the mosque to outsiders and anyone whom Abu Hamza deemed a threat.“Abu Hamza Profile,” BBC News, January 9, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11701269. During this time, Abu Hamza associated remotely with Yemen-based extremist figures, even claiming to serve as the “legal officer” for the al-Qaeda-affiliated Islamic Army of Aden terrorist group.“Designation of 10 Terrorist Financiers Fact Sheet,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, April 19, 2002, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/po3014.aspx. Abu Hamza was contacted by British police in 1999 for suspected ties to bomb plots in Yemen.“Abu Hamza Profile,” BBC News, January 9, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11701269.

In late December 1998, Abu Hamza participated remotely in a hostage-taking operation in Yemen that resulted in four deaths. Prior to the attack, Abu Hamza had provided the lead abductor with a satellite phone, using it to speak with the abductor both before and during the operation. On December 28, abductors stormed a caravan carrying 16 tourists, taking them hostage by force. During the attack, Abu Hamza agreed to act as an intermediary on behalf of the abductors, and continued to provide advice to the abductors over the phone.“Mustafa Kamel Mustafa, A/k/a “Abu Hamza,” Convicted Of 11 Terrorism Charges In Manhattan Federal Court,” U.S. Department of Justice, May 19, 2014, https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/mustafa-kamel-mustafa-aka-abu-hamza-convicted-11-terrorism-charges-manhattan-federal. On December 29, during a rescue attempt by the Yemeni military, the abductors used the hostages as human shields, resulting in the deaths of four hostages and the injury of several others.“United States of America v. Mustafa Kamel Mustafa: Indictment,” U.S. Department of Justice, April 19, 2004, https://www.justice.gov/archive/usao/nys/pressreleases/October12/ChargingDocs/Mustafa,%20Mustafa%20Indictment.pdf. The attack was claimed by the Islamic Army of Aden, which would also claim credit for the USS Cole bombing in 2000.“Designation of 10 Terrorist Financiers Fact Sheet,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, April 19, 2002, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/po3014.aspx.

Abu Hamza continued to preach at the Finsbury Park mosque, all the while supporting terrorist operations abroad. In 1999, Abu Hamza and several co-conspirators attempted to establish an al-Qaeda training camp in the United States, based in Bly, Oregon. In late November 1999, Abu Hamza dispatched several British-based al-Qaeda operatives to establish the camp. One of the operatives, Oussama Abdullah Kassir, brought with him a manual on the use of sarin nerve gas.“Mustafa Kamel Mustafa, A/k/a “Abu Hamza,” Convicted Of 11 Terrorism Charges In Manhattan Federal Court,” U.S. Department of Justice, May 19, 2014, https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/mustafa-kamel-mustafa-aka-abu-hamza-convicted-11-terrorism-charges-manhattan-federal. As part of the conspiracy, U.S.-based al-Qaeda operatives began to stockpile weapons and ammunition, according to U.S. court documents.“United States of America v. Mustafa Kamel Mustafa: Indictment,” U.S. Department of Justice, April 19, 2004, 6, https://www.justice.gov/archive/usao/nys/pressreleases/October12/ChargingDocs/Mustafa,%20Mustafa%20Indictment.pdf. Meanwhile, Abu Hamza also continued to work as a facilitator for foreign fighters. In November 2000, Abu Hamza began arranging safehouses and lodging in Pakistan for foreign fighters traveling to Afghanistan.“United States of America v. Mustafa Kamel Mustafa: Indictment,” U.S. Department of Justice, April 19, 2004, 11, https://www.justice.gov/archive/usao/nys/pressreleases/October12/ChargingDocs/Mustafa,%20Mustafa%20Indictment.pdf.

The Islamic Army of Aden—which claimed credit for the 1998 hostage attack—was listed by the United Nations as an organization affiliated with al-Qaeda in October 2001, after the United States designated the group as a financier of terrorism. Months later, on April 19, 2002, the U.S. Treasury Department designated Abu Hamza as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist (SDGT) in accordance with Executive Order 13224.“Designation of 10 Terrorist Financiers Fact Sheet,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, April 19, 2002, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/po3014.aspx. The U.N. Security Council added Abu Hamza to its list of individuals associated with al-Qaeda shortly thereafter.“Consolidated United Nations Security Council Sanctions List,” United Nations Security Council, accessed April 7, 2017, https://www.un.org/sc/suborg/en/sanctions/un-sc-consolidated-list. In explaining the reason for listing Abu Hamza, the United Nations noted that he was responsible for “recruiting” and “participating in the financing, planning, facilitating, preparing or perpetrating of acts” by the Islamic Army of Aden.“Ibrahim, Mostafa Kamel Mostafa,” Interpol, accessed April 13, 2017, https://www.interpol.int/en/notice/search/un/1419422. Despite the listing, Abu Hamza continued to preach openly in London for several years. In 2002, on the first anniversary of al-Qaeda’s 9/11 attacks, Abu Hamza co-organized a conference at the Finsbury Park mosque. During the conference, the speakers reportedly praised the 9/11 hijackers.“Abu Hamza Profile,” BBC News, January 9, 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-11701269. British authorities raided the mosque in January 2003 after discovering a terrorist plot, and seized weapons and hundreds of suspected forged or stolen identity documents and credit cards. Abu Hamza was not arrested despite the raid and temporary closure of the Finsbury Park mosque, as well as the arrest of several of its members. He continued to preach openly in London, often in the street directly facing the mosque.Duncan Gardham, “Nightclub Bouncer Who Became the Cleric of Hate,” Telegraph (London), February 8, 2006, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1509940/Nightclub-bouncer-who-became-the-cleric-of-hate.html;
John Steele, Sean O’Neill, Richard Alleyne, and Sue Clough, “Police Seize Weapons in Mosque Raid,” Telegraph (London), January 21, 2003, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1419533/Police-seize-weapons-in-mosque-raid.html.

Abu Hamza was arrested by British authorities in May 2004 after the United States requested his extradition to face charges. By that point, Abu Hamza had been stripped of his citizenship, according to U.K. Home Secretary David Blunkett.“Ibrahim, Mostafa Kamel Mostafa,” Interpol, accessed April 13, 2017, https://www.interpol.int/en/notice/search/un/1419422;
Duncan Gardham, “Nightclub Bouncer Who Became the Cleric of Hate,” Telegraph (London), February 8, 2006, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1509940/Nightclub-bouncer-who-became-the-cleric-of-hate.html. Despite the United States’ extradition request, Abu Hamza was first tried in the United Kingdom. In February 2006, he was sentenced to seven years in prison after being convicted on sixteen criminal counts, including six counts of soliciting to murder and three counts of intending to stir up racial hatred.“Ibrahim, Mostafa Kamel Mostafa,” Interpol, accessed April 13, 2017, https://www.interpol.int/en/notice/search/un/1419422. In October 2012, after an eight-year legal battle, Abu Hamza was extradited to the United States to face terrorism-related charges. He was convicted in May 2014 of 11 terrorism-related charges and sentenced in January 2015 to life in prison without parole.“Mustafa Kamel Mustafa, A/k/a “Abu Hamza,” Convicted Of 11 Terrorism Charges In Manhattan Federal Court,” U.S. Department of Justice, May 19, 2014, https://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/mustafa-kamel-mustafa-aka-abu-hamza-convicted-11-terrorism-charges-manhattan-federal;
Joseph Ax, “London cleric Abu Hamza sentenced to life in U.S. prison,” Reuters, January 9, 2015, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-security-imam-idUSKBN0KI0DA20150109.

In August 2020, Abu Hamza filed a lawsuit against the U.S. attorney general over the allegedly “cruel” conditions of his imprisonment. He claimed that the government has denied him family visits for the past eight years, and that he receives no natural light in his cell. Abu Hamza also alleged that the removal of his hooks “has left him having to tear open food packages with his rotting teeth.” He claimed that the conditions have caused him “stress and anxiety.”Zoe Tidman, “Abu Hamza Sues US Over ‘Cruel’ Prison Conditions As He Claims His Hooks Which Replace Forearms Have Been Removed,” Independent (London), August 30, 2020, https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/abu-hamza-lawsuit-us-prison-conditions-hate-preacher-finsbury-park-mosque-a9696281.html; Dipesh Gadher, “Abu Hamza Sues US Over ‘Degrading’ Jail and his Rotting Teeth,” Times, August 29, 2020, https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/abu-hamza-sues-us-over-degrading-jail-and-his-rotting-teeth-ptr5zjm00.

U.S.-sanctioned Abdallah al-Muhaysini is a senior leader in al-Qaeda’s Syrian-based al-Nusra Front, having served at various times as a recruiter, fundraiser, and religious advisor for the terrorist group.“Treasury Designates Key Al-Nusrah Front Leaders,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 10, 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0605.aspx. Muhaysini has raised millions of dollars for al-Nusra Front, boasting of having raised at least $5 million through a variety of terrorist fronts. In April 2016, Muhaysini launched a campaign to recruit 3,000 child and teenage soldiers from across northern Syria. In addition to fundraising and recruiting on behalf of al-Nusra Front, Muhaysini has also served at various times as its military strategist and political representative.“Treasury Designates Key Al-Nusrah Front Leaders,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 10, 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0605.aspx.

Muhaysini was born in 1987 in the Qassim region of north-central Saudi Arabia. After having reportedly memorized the Quran by the age of 15, Muhaysini graduated from the University of Umm al-Qura in Mecca with a degree in sharia (Islamic law).Aaron Y. Zelin, “The Saudi Foreign Fighter Presence in Syria,” Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, April 28, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-saudi-foreign-fighter-presence-in-syria. Muhaysini earned his doctorate degree soon after from the Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University in Riyadh, where he studied under extremist, al-Qaeda-affiliated propagandist Sulayman al-Ulwan. After serving as the imam at the Qatar mosque in Mecca, Muhaysini left for Syria in or around 2013, where he quickly took up with al-Nusra Front. He was photographed alongside notorious Chechen Nusra commander Omar al-Shishani, and has admitted to having spoken with al-Qaeda leader Ayman al-Zawahiri by phone.Aaron Y. Zelin, “The Saudi Foreign Fighter Presence in Syria,” Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point, April 28, 2014, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/posts/the-saudi-foreign-fighter-presence-in-syria. Before he became the target of U.S. sanctions in November 2016, Muhaysini maintained an English-language Twitter account under the handle @Muhaysini_EN, where Muhaysini—despite his affiliation with al-Nusra Front—claimed to be an “immigrant to Shaam [Syria]” and “an independent student of knowledge who doesn’t belong to any [rebel] faction.”Thomas Joscelyn, “US Treasury designates Saudi jihadist cleric, three others in Syria,” Long War Journal, November 10, 2016, http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/11/us-treasury-designates-saudi-jihadist-cleric-three-others-in-syria.php. Before finally being suspended in November 2016, Muhaysini’s Twitter account had reached more than 60,000 followers.Rukmini Callimachi, “Protest of U.S. Terror Listing Offers a Glimpse at Qaeda Strategy,” New York Times, November 17, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/world/middleeast/protest-of-us-terror-listing-offers-a-glimpse-at-qaeda-strategy.html.

Muhaysini was sanctioned by the U.S. government for his role in al-Nusra Front on November 10, 2016.“Treasury Designates Key Al-Nusrah Front Leaders,” U.S. Department of the Treasury, November 10, 2016, https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0605.aspx. In an interview with the New York Times released the following week, Muhaysini denied any affiliation with al-Qaeda and claimed that Syrians were outraged at the designation since he was a “national symbol” for the Syrian people. As the Times reports, however, Muhaysini has used his social media profile to eulogize deceased al-Qaeda leaders and encourage suicide bombers to carry out attacks. As the Times notes, Muhaysini was even profiled in one of al-Qaeda’s magazines, Al Risalah.Rukmini Callimachi, “Protest of U.S. Terror Listing Offers a Glimpse at Qaeda Strategy,” New York Times, November 17, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/18/world/middleeast/protest-of-us-terror-listing-offers-a-glimpse-at-qaeda-strategy.html.

In September 2017, Muhaysini announced his resignation from Hay’at Tahrir al Sham (HTS), a group formed from a merger of al-Nusra Front and several smaller groups. He complained about the infighting between HTS and Ahrar al-Sham and leaked audio recordings that exposed that some within HTS had it out for him, citing these as the reasons for his resignation.Thomas Joscelyn, “Al Qaeda again addresses factional infighting in Syria,” Long war Journal, March 24, 2018, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2018/03/al-qaeda-again-addresses-factional-infighting-in-syria.php. He has also survived two assassination attempts. The first by a suicide bomber in June 2017 left him unharmed and the second in April 2018 by a road side bomb wounded him.Angus McDowall, “Militant Saudi cleric survives assassination attempt in Syria,” Reuters, June 16, 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-assassination/militant-saudi-cleric-survives-assassination-attempt-in-syria-idUSKBN1972AJ; “Abdullah Al-Muhaysini Wounded in Assassination Attempt in Syria's Idlib,” Fars News Agency, April 28, 2018, http://en.farsnews.com/newstext.aspx?nn=13970208000469.

In September 2018, after a Turkish book accused Muhaysini of hostility towards Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, Muhaysini responded in defense of the president. He called Erdoğan “a diligent Muslim . . . who is trying to reform his country, and support the issues of Muslims,” praising him for moving Turkey away from secularism.Thomas Joscelyn and Caleb Weiss, “Jihadi Ideologues Argue of Turkey’s Erdogan,” FDD’s Long War Journal, September 28, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/09/jihadist-ideologues-argue-over-turkeys-erdogan.php. This drew a rebuke from jihadi ideologue Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi, who argued that supporting Erdoğan is a “dilution of ideology.” Maqdisi cited Turkey’s participation in NATO, the invasion of Afghanistan, recognition of the “apostate government of Somalia,” and respect for established international borders to indict jihadist supporters of Erdoğan. Muhaysini responded to this criticism by claiming Maqdisi is not a real sheikh and thus has no authority to issue fatwa. He also accused Maqdisi of harming the jihad in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria by his overly harsh application of takfir, of disparaging the names of Hamas co-founder Ahmed Yassin and jihad “godfather” Abdullah Azzam, and of being excessively lenient towards elements of ISIS.Thomas Joscelyn and Caleb Weiss, “Jihadi Ideologues Argue of Turkey’s Erdogan,” FDD’s Long War Journal, September 28, 2020, https://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2020/09/jihadist-ideologues-argue-over-turkeys-erdogan.php.

Egyptian national Gehad El-Haddad is the imprisoned spokesman of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. Before his September 2013 arrest, Haddad served as the main point of contact between the Brotherhood and the international media. He also served as chief of staff to the Brotherhood’s now-imprisoned Deputy Supreme Guide Khairat el-Shater. Haddad was arrested in an apartment in Cairo on September 17, 2013, on charges of inciting to kill protesters of former Egyptian President Mohammed Morsi.“Egypt detains Brotherhood spokesman Haddad – officials,” Reuters, September 17, 2013, http://www.reuters.com/article/uk-egypt-protests-haddad-idUKBRE98G0OL20130917;
Ed Payne, “Egypt arrests Muslim Brotherhood spokesman,” CNN, September 18, 2013, http://www.cnn.com/2013/09/18/world/meast/egypt-muslim-brotherhood-arrest/.

Prior to Mohammed Morsi’s June 2012 election, Haddad reportedly volunteered for the Muslim Brotherhood as a media strategist. He also worked at the Cairo office of the Clinton Climate Initiative—founded by former U.S. President Bill Clinton. Directly following Morsi’s election, Haddad began working full-time on the Brotherhood’s “Renaissance Project,” chaired by Khairat el-Shater and described by Egypt Independent as “a 25-year project to reform state, business and civil society, rooted in the Brotherhood’s Islamic values….”Nadine Marroushi, “Renaissance man: Gehad El Haddad works as the Islamist project’s pragmatist,” Egypt Independent, July 31, 2012, http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/renaissance-man-gehad-el-haddad-works-islamist-project-s-pragmatist.

Haddad comes from a family of Brotherhood members and sympathizers. Born in the early 1980s and raised in Alexandria, Egypt, Haddad is the son of Essam El-Haddad, a senior advisor on foreign affairs to former President Morsi. Between 2005 and 2006, Gehad El-Haddad studied strategic marketing and filmmaking in the United Kingdom, where he met and produced a television program with the Islamist Egyptian television personality Amr Khaled. According to Haddad, the program, Sunna al-Hayat, “was about drawing values from the Quran and connecting them with the type of social work that wealthy Egyptians could do to help their societies.”Nadine Marroushi, “Renaissance man: Gehad El Haddad works as the Islamist project’s pragmatist,” Egypt Independent, July 31, 2012, http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/renaissance-man-gehad-el-haddad-works-islamist-project-s-pragmatist. Haddad then worked for a multinational firm, but returned to Egypt in 2006-2007.Nadine Marroushi, “Renaissance man: Gehad El Haddad works as the Islamist project’s pragmatist,” Egypt Independent, July 31, 2012, http://www.egyptindependent.com/news/renaissance-man-gehad-el-haddad-works-islamist-project-s-pragmatist;
“Gehad El-Haddad,” Muslim Brotherhood Daily Watch, accessed February 24, 2017, https://www.globalmbwatch.com/gehad-el-haddad/. According to Haddad’s LinkedIn profile, he began working on the Brotherhood’s Renaissance Project in February 2012, and as the Brotherhood’s “senior adviser & media spokesperson” in January 2013.“Gehad El-Haddad,” LinkedIn profile, accessed February 24, 2017, https://www.linkedin.com/in/gelhaddad/.

In February 2017, the New York Times published an op-ed by Haddad in which he insisted that the Muslim Brotherhood was a purely peaceful organization, following “the values of social justice, equality and the rule of law.” The op-ed came amid increased pressure on the Trump administration to sanction-designate the Muslim Brotherhood under Executive order 13224. Haddad is in “solitary confinement in Egypt’s most notorious prison,” according to the op-ed.Gehad El-Haddad, “I Am a Member of the Muslim Brotherhood, Not a Terrorist,” February 22, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/22/opinion/i-am-a-member-of-the-muslim-brotherhood-not-a-terrorist.html?_r=0. Following the publication of Haddad’s op-ed, his family stated in May 2017, that Haddad was placed in a “punishment cell,” which has no ventilation, beds, toilets, or light.“UN Panel Presses Egypt for Immediate Release of Senior Muslim Brotherhood Figures,” Middle East Eye, October 24, 2019, http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/un-panel-calls-immediate-release-essam-and-gehad-el-haddad-egypt.

A May 2018 Amnesty International report concluded that Haddad’s prison treatment amounts to torture given the time he spent in solitary confinement and other abuses he has been subjected to.“Egypt: End Gehad El-Haddad`s Solitary Confinement and Denial of Medical Care,” Amnesty International, May 28, 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/gehad-elhaddads-solitary-confinement-and-denial-of-medical-care/. Haddad had been in solitary confinement since September 2013.“Egypt: End Gehad El-Haddad`s Solitary Confinement and Denial of Medical Care,” Amnesty International, May 28, 2018, https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/05/gehad-elhaddads-solitary-confinement-and-denial-of-medical-care/.

Haddad was acquitted in September 2019 of espionage charges.Maged Mandour, “Egypt Behind Bars,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 11, 2020, https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/81045#_ftnref1. However, he remained in custody after new charges were brought against him.Maged Mandour, “Egypt Behind Bars,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, February 11, 2020, https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/81045#_ftnref1.

Omar Abdel-Rahman—known colloquially as the “Blind Sheikh”—was an influential figure for al-Qaeda terrorists, known for issuing fatwas (religious rulings) calling for acts of terrorism. Abdel-Rahman was himself implicated in plotting and conspiring to carry out various acts of terror. The Egyptian national was arrested in 1993, tried, and ultimately convicted in 1995 on dozens of charges, including conspiracy in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU. A rallying figure for al-Qaeda and the Muslim Brotherhood among other extremist groups, Abdel-Rahman died in February 2017 while serving a life sentence in U.S. prison.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU.

Abdel-Rahman was born and raised in Egypt, blind since infancy as a result of childhood diabetes.Peter Bergen, “The Cleric Who Altered the Course of Modern History,” CNN, February 19, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/02/19/opinions/9-11-spiritual-guide-dies-bergen/;
Rich Schapiro, “Blind sheik Omar Abdel-Rahman, Mastermind of 1993 World Trade Center Bombing, Dies at 78,” New York Daily News, February 19, 2017, http://www.nydailynews.com/new-york/blind-sheik-omar-abdel-rahman-linked-1993-wtc-attack-dies-article-1.2976140. After studying the Quran in braille, Abdel-Rahman received a doctorate degree in Islamic jurisprudence from Al-Azhar University in Cairo.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU; Peter Bergen, “The Cleric Who Altered the Course of Modern History,” CNN, February 19, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/02/19/opinions/9-11-spiritual-guide-dies-bergen/. Following the October 1981 assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, Abdel-Rahman was arrested and imprisoned for having previously penned a fatwa excommunicating Sadat, thereby laying the theological groundwork for his murder.Matt Schudel, “Omar Abdel Rahman, imprisoned ‘blind sheikh’ linked to terrorist efforts, dies at 78,” Washington Post, February 18, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/omar-abdel-rahman-blind-sheik-convicted-in-1993-world-trade-center-attack-dies-at-78/2017/02/18/807c4f2c-f603-11e6-8d72-263470bf0401_story.html;
Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU. Although Abdel-Rahman was discovered to have written the fatwa, he was acquitted of direct involvement in the murder, and was released from prison in 1984.Julia Preston, “Omar Abdel Rahman, Blind Cleric Found Guilty of Plot to Wage ‘War of Urban Terrorism,’ Dies at 78,” New York Times, February 18, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/18/world/middleeast/omar-abdel-rahman-dead.html. Abdel-Rahman subsequently left Egypt for Afghanistan, where he joined the anti-Soviet jihadist movement and forged an alliance with al-Qaeda leaders Osama bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri.Matt Schudel, “Omar Abdel Rahman, imprisoned ‘blind sheikh’ linked to terrorist efforts, dies at 78,” Washington Post, February 18, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/omar-abdel-rahman-blind-sheik-convicted-in-1993-world-trade-center-attack-dies-at-78/2017/02/18/807c4f2c-f603-11e6-8d72-263470bf0401_story.html.

In 1990, Abdel-Rahman applied for and received a tourist visa to travel to the United States, despite being on the State Department’s list of individuals with ties to terrorist organizations.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU. That year, Abdel-Rahman and his followers were implicated in the murder of radical preacher Rabbi Meir Kahane, shot to death in a Manhattan hotel.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU;
John Kifner, “Meir Kahane, 58, Israeli Militant and Founder of the Jewish Defense League,” New York Times, November 6, 1990, http://www.nytimes.com/1990/11/06/obituaries/meir-kahane-58-israeli-militant-and-founder-of-the-jewish-defense-league.html. Abdel-Rahman nonetheless received a green card and U.S. permanent resident status the following year, and began preaching in storefronts in Brooklyn, New York, and nearby Jersey City in New Jersey.Matt Schudel, “Omar Abdel Rahman, imprisoned ‘blind sheikh’ linked to terrorist efforts, dies at 78,” Washington Post, February 18, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/omar-abdel-rahman-blind-sheik-convicted-in-1993-world-trade-center-attack-dies-at-78/2017/02/18/807c4f2c-f603-11e6-8d72-263470bf0401_story.html;
Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU. In 1992, Abdel-Rahman and his followers were linked to terrorist attacks in Egypt, including the murder of an Egyptian writer and attacks on foreign tourists.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU.

On February 26, 1993, followers of Abdel-Rahman bombed the World Trade Center in New York, killing six people and wounding more than 1,000 others. Abdel-Rahman was arrested four months later as part of the investigation, and was found to have been directly involved in plotting a thwarted “day of terror” in New York, in which terrorists would simultaneously bomb the United Nations building, the Lincoln and Holland tunnels, the George Washington Bridge, and the FBI headquarters.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU;
Matt Schudel, “Omar Abdel Rahman, imprisoned ‘blind sheikh’ linked to terrorist efforts, dies at 78,” Washington Post, February 18, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/omar-abdel-rahman-blind-sheik-convicted-in-1993-world-trade-center-attack-dies-at-78/2017/02/18/807c4f2c-f603-11e6-8d72-263470bf0401_story.html. Abdel-Rahman was also found to have plotted to kill Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak during a 1993 visit to the United States, as well as a Jewish New York state legislator and a Jewish New York State Supreme Court justice.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU. In all, Abdel-Rahman was convicted on 48 terrorism-related charges on October 1, 1995, and sentenced in 1996 to life in prison.Joseph P. Fried, “The Terror Conspiracy: the Overview; Sheik and 9 Followers Guilty of a Conspiracy of Terrorism,” New York Times, October 2, 1995, http://www.nytimes.com/1995/10/02/nyregion/terror-conspiracy-overview-sheik-9-followers-guilty-conspiracy-terrorism.html;
Julia Preston, “Lawyer Is Guilty of Aiding Terror,” New York Times, February 11, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/11/nyregion/lawyer-is-guilty-of-aiding-terror.html.

While in prison, Abdel-Rahman continued to serve as a rallying figure for notorious extremist and terrorist operatives, including al-Qaeda leaders bin Laden and Zawahiri, as well as Zawahiri’s brother, Muhammad al-Zawahiri, and Egyptian Brotherhood figure Mohammed Morsi.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU;
Matt Schudel, “Omar Abdel Rahman, imprisoned ‘blind sheikh’ linked to terrorist efforts, dies at 78,” Washington Post, February 18, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/omar-abdel-rahman-blind-sheik-convicted-in-1993-world-trade-center-attack-dies-at-78/2017/02/18/807c4f2c-f603-11e6-8d72-263470bf0401_story.html. In May 1998, two years after Abdel-Rahman’s sentence to life in prison, al-Qaeda publicly released a fatwa by Abdel-Rahman urging all Muslims to “tear [Americans, Jews, and Christians] to pieces.” Presaging al-Qaeda’s USS Cole and 9/11 attacks, the fatwa continued: “Destroy their economies, burn their corporations, destroy their businesses, sink their ships and bring down their airplanes. Kill them in the sea, on land and in the air.”Peter Bergen, “The Cleric Who Altered the Course of Modern History,” CNN, February 19, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/02/19/opinions/9-11-spiritual-guide-dies-bergen/.

Bin Laden and other senior Islamist figures have continued to reference Abdel-Rahman as a rallying figure in their various propaganda materials. In 2000, Al Jazeera released a video of bin Laden vowing “to work with all our power to free our brother, Sheikh Omar Abdel Rahman.”Peter Bergen, “The Cleric Who Altered the Course of Modern History,” CNN, February 19, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/02/19/opinions/9-11-spiritual-guide-dies-bergen/. In the spring of 2001, during the final stages before the 9/11 attacks, bin Laden released a two-hour-long propaganda video for al-Qaeda, at one point referencing Abdel-Rahman, calling him a “hostage in an American jail.”Peter Bergen, “The Cleric Who Altered the Course of Modern History,” CNN, February 19, 2017, http://www.cnn.com/2017/02/19/opinions/9-11-spiritual-guide-dies-bergen/.

Zawahiri has meanwhile called on Egyptians to kidnap Americans in an effort to secure a prisoner exchange, and his brother, Muhammad, has called Abdel-Rahman “the godfather of all Islamic movements.”Matt Schudel, “Omar Abdel Rahman, imprisoned ‘blind sheikh’ linked to terrorist efforts, dies at 78,” Washington Post, February 18, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/omar-abdel-rahman-blind-sheik-convicted-in-1993-world-trade-center-attack-dies-at-78/2017/02/18/807c4f2c-f603-11e6-8d72-263470bf0401_story.html. Upon his election to the Egyptian presidency in 2012, Brotherhood figure Mohammed Morsi pledged to win Abdel-Rahman’s freedom, which he characterized as a priority for his government.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU;
David D. Kirkpatrick, “Egypt’s New Leader Takes Oath, Promising to Work for Release of Jailed Terrorist,” New York Times, June 29, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/30/world/middleeast/morsi-promises-to-work-for-release-of-omar-abdel-rahman.html. Abdel-Rahman’s speeches and texts have also reportedly been used by ISIS for recruitment purposes.Kjetil Stormark, “Fight and Win Paradise,” Hate Speech International, February 4, 2014, https://www.hate-speech.org/fight-in-syria-win-paradise/.

Abdel-Rahman suffered from coronary artery disease and diabetes. He died of natural causes while in U.S. custody on February 18, 2017.Bill Trott, “’Blind Sheikh’ Convicted in 1993 World Trade Bombing Dies in U.S. Prison,” Reuters, February 18, 2017, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-tradecenter-rahman-idUSKBN15X0KU.